[Illustration: CASTLE S. ANGELO. ]

 Edition d'Élite

 Historical Tales

 The Romance of Reality

 By

 CHARLES MORRIS

 _Author of "Half-Hours with the Best American Authors, " "Tales from the Dramatists, " etc. _

 IN FIFTEEN VOLUMES

 Volume XI

 Roman

 J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON

 Copyright, 1896, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 

 Copyright, 1904, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 

 Copyright, 1908, by J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. 

CONTENTS. 

 PAGE HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED 7

 THE SABINE VIRGINS 14

 THE HORATII AND CURIATII 22

 THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS 26

 THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL 32

 THE STORY OF LUCRETIA 36

 HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE 43

 THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS 50

 THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE 54

 THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS 60

 CINCINNATUS AND THE ÆQUIANS 68

 THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA 75

 CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII 87

 THE GAULS AT ROME 94

 THE CURTIAN GULF 105

 ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS 108

 THE CAUDINE FORKS 116

 THE FATE OF REGULUS 126

 HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS 135

 HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED 145

 ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 152

 THE FATE OF CARTHAGE 158

 THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL 165

 JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME 173

 THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS 180

 THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA 191

 THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS 198

 CÆSAR AND THE PIRATES 204

 CÆSAR AND POMPEY 208

 THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR 218

 ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA 227

 AN IMPERIAL MONSTER 236

 THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS 243

 BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN 250

 ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES 255

 THE DOOM OF NERO 262

 THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE 272

 THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON 280

 THE FAITHFUL EPONINA 289

 THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM 293

 THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII 301

 AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE 309

 THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE 319

 THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE 325

 THE DOWNFALL OF ROME 331

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

ROMAN. 

 PAGE THE CASTLE OF ST. ANGELO _Frontispiece_. 

 ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S 18

 THE FORUM OF ROME 26

 BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS 40

 HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE 46

 THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA 75

 RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS 106

 HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS 139

 THE BATHS OF CARACALLA 150

 THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR 218

 ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CÆSAR 224

 THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA 230

 THE TOMB OF HADRIAN 260

 A ROMAN CHARIOT RACE 275

 THE COLISEUM AT ROME 282

 THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM 294

 THE RUINS OF POMPEII 306

 EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS 309

 ARCH OF TITUS, ROME 320

 THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS 333

_HOW ROME WAS FOUNDED. _

Very far back in time, more than twenty-six hundred years ago, on thebanks of a small Italian river, known as the Tiber, were laid thefoundations of a city which was in time to become the conqueror of thecivilized world. Of the early days of this renowned city of Rome we knowvery little. What is called its history is really only legend, --storiesinvented by poets, or ancient facts which became gradually changed intoromances. The Romans believed them, but that is no reason why we should. They believed many things which we doubt. And yet these romantic storiesare the only existing foundation-stones of actual Roman history, and wecan do no better than give them for what little kernel of fact they maycontain. 

In our tales from Greek history it has been told how the city of Troywas destroyed, and how Æneas, one of its warrior chiefs, escaped. Aftermany adventures this fugitive Trojan prince reached Italy and foundedthere a new kingdom. His son Ascanius afterwards built the city of AlbaLonga (the long white city) not far from the site of the later city ofRome. Three hundred years passed away, many kings came and went, andthen Numitor, a descendant of Æneas, came to the throne. But Numitorhad an ambitious brother, Amulius, who robbed him of his crown, and, while letting him live, killed his only son and shut up his daughterSilvia in the temple of the goddess Vesta, to guard the ever-burningfire of that deity. 

Here Silvia had twin sons, whose father was said, in the oldsuperstitious fashion, to be Mars, the God of War. The usurper, fearingthat these sons of Mars might grow up and deprive him of his throne, ordered that they and their mother should be flung into the Tiber, thenswollen with recent rains. The mother was drowned, but destiny, or Mars, preserved the sons. Borne onward in their basket cradle, they were atlength swept ashore where the river had overflown its banks at the footof the afterwards famous Palatine Hill. Here the cradle was over-turnednear the roots of a wild fig-tree, and the infants left at the edge ofthe shallow waters. 

What follows sounds still more like fable. A she-wolf that came to thewater to drink chanced to see the helpless children, and carried them toher cave, where she fed them with her milk. As they grew older awoodpecker brought them food, flying in and out of the cave. At lengthFaustulus, a herdsman of the king, found these lusty infants in thewolf's den, took them home, and gave them to his wife Laurentia to bringup with her own children. He gave them the names of Romulus and Remus. 

Years went by, and the river waifs grew to be strong, handsome, andbrave young men. They became leaders among the shepherds and herdsmen, and helped them to fight the wild animals that troubled their flocks. Their home was on the Palatine Hill, and the cattle and sheep for whichthey cared were those of the wicked king Amulius. Near by was anotherhill, called the Aventine, and on this the deposed king Numitor fed hisflocks. In course of time a quarrel arose between the herdsmen on thetwo hills, and Numitor's men, having laid an ambush, took Remus prisonerand carried him to Alba, where their master dwelt. This no sooner becameknown to Romulus than he gathered the young men of the Palatine Hill, and set out in all haste to the rescue of his brother. 

Meanwhile, Remus had been taken before Numitor, who gazed on him withsurprise. His face and bearing were rather those of a prince than of ashepherd, and there was something in his aspect familiar to the oldking. Numitor questioned him closely, and Remus told him the story ofthe river, the wolf, and the herdsman. Numitor listened intently. Thestory took him back to the day, many years before, when his daughterSilvia and her twin sons had been thrown into the swollen stream. Couldthe children have escaped? Could this handsome youth be his grandson? Itmust be so, for his age and his story agreed. 

But while they talked, Romulus and his followers reached the city, and, being forbidden entrance, made an assault on the gates. In the conflictthat ensued Amulius took part and was killed, and thus Numitor and hisdaughter were at last revenged. Seeking Remus, the victorious shepherdprince found him with Numitor, who now fully recognized in the twinyouths his long-lost grandsons. Romulus, who was now master of the city, restored his royal grandfather to the throne. 

As for Romulus and Remus, their life as shepherds was at an end. It wasnot for youths of royal blood and warlike aspirations to spend theirlives in keeping sheep. But Numitor had been restored to the throne ofAlba, and they decided to build a city of their own on those hills whereall their lives had been passed and on which they preferred to dwell. The land belonged to Numitor, but he willingly granted it to them, andthey led their followers to the spot. 

Here a dispute arose between the brothers. The story goes that Romuluswished to have the city built on the Palatine Hill, Remus on theAventine Hill; and that, as they could not agree, they referred thematter to their grandfather, who advised them to settle it byaugury, --or by watching and forming conclusions from the flight ofbirds. This long continued the favorite Roman mode of settling difficultquestions. It was easier than the Greek plan of going to Delphi toconsult the oracle. 

The two brothers now stationed themselves on the opposite hills, eachwith a portion of their followers, and waited patiently for what theheavens might send. The day slowly waned, and they waited in vain. Nightcame and deepened, and still their vigil lasted. At length, just as thesun of a new day rose in the east, Remus saw a flight of vultures, sixin all. He exulted at the sight, for the vulture, as a bird which wasseldom seen and did no harm to cattle or crops, was looked upon as anexcellent augury. Word of his success was sent to Romulus, but he cappedthe story with a better one, saying that twelve vultures had just passedover his hill. 

The dispute was still open. Remus had seen the birds first; Romulus hadseen the most. Which had won? The question was offered to the decisionof their followers, the majority of whom raised their voices in favor ofRomulus. The Palatine Hill was therefore chosen as the city's site. Thisevent took place, so Roman chronology tells us, in the year 753 B. C. 

The day fixed for the beginning of the work on the new city--the 21st ofApril--was a day of religious ceremony and festival among the shepherds. On this day they offered sacrifices of cakes and milk to their godPales, asked for blessings on the flocks and herds, and implored pardonfor all offences against the dryads of the woods, the nymphs of thestreams, and other deities. They purified themselves by flame and theirflocks by smoke, and afterwards indulged in rustic feasts and games. This day of religious consecration was deemed by Romulus the fittest onefor the important ceremony of founding his projected city. 

Far back in time as it was when this took place, Italy seems to havealready possessed numerous cities, many of which were to become enemiesof Rome in later days. The most civilized of the Italian peoples werethe Etruscans, a nation dwelling north of the Tiber, and whose manycities displayed a higher degree of civilization than those aroundthem. From these the Romans in later days borrowed many of theirreligious customs, and to them Romulus sent to learn what were theproper ceremonies to use in founding a city. 

The ceremonies he used were the following. At the centre of the chosenarea he dug a circular pit through the soil to the hard clay beneath, and cast into this, with solemn observances, some of the first fruits ofthe season. Each of his men also threw in a handful of earth broughtfrom his native land. Then the pit was filled up, an altar erected uponit, and a fire kindled on the altar. In this way was the cityconsecrated to the gods. 

Then, having harnessed a cow and a bull of snow-white color to a ploughwhose share was made of brass, Romulus ploughed a furrow along the lineof the future walls. He took care that the earth of the furrow shouldfall inward towards the city, and also to lift the plough and carry itover the places where gates were to be made. As he ploughed he uttered aprayer to Jupiter, Mars, Vesta, and other deities, invoking their favor, and praying that the new city should long endure and become anall-ruling power upon the earth. 

The Romans tell us that his prayer was answered by Jupiter, who sentthunder from one side of the heavens and lightning from the other. Theseomens encouraged the people, who went cheerfully to the work of buildingthe walls. But the consecration of the city was not yet completed. Itswalls were to be cemented by noble blood. There is reason to believethat in those days the line of a city's walls was held as sacred, andthat it was desecration to enter the enclosure at any place except thoseleft for the gates. This may be the reason that Romulus gave orders to aman named Celer, who had charge of the building of the walls, not to letany one pass over the furrow made by the plough. However this be, thestory goes that Remus, who was still angry about his brother's victory, leaped scornfully over the furrow, exclaiming, "Shall such defences asthese keep your city?"

Celer, who stood by, stirred to sudden fury by this disdain, raised thespade with which he had been working, and struck Remus a blow that laidhim dead upon the ground. Then, fearing vengeance for his hasty act, herushed away with such speed that his name has since been a synonyme forquickness. Our word "celerity" is derived from it. But Romulus seems tohave borne the infliction with much of that spirit of fortitude whichdistinguished the Romans in after-times. At least, the only effect thedeath of his brother had upon him, so far as we know, was in the remark, "So let it happen to all who pass over my walls!" Thus were consecratedin the blood of a brother the walls of that city which in later yearswas to be bathed in the blood of the brotherhood of mankind, and fromwhich was destined to outflow a torrent of desolation over the earth. 

_THE SABINE VIRGINS. _

A tract of ground surrounded by walls does not make a city. Men arewanted, and of these the new city of Rome had but few. The band ofshepherds who were sufficient to build a wall, or perhaps only a woodenpalisade, were not enough to inhabit a city and defend it from its foes. The neighboring people had cities of their own, except bandits andfugitives, men who had shed blood, exiles driven from their homes bytheir enemies, or slaves who had fled from their lords and masters. These were the only people to be had, and Romulus invited them in byproclaiming that his city should be an asylum for all who wereoppressed, a place of refuge to which any man might flee and be safefrom his pursuers. He erected a temple to a god named Asylæus, --fromwhom comes the word asylum, --and in this he "received and protected all, delivering none back, neither the servant to his master, the debtor tohis creditor, nor the murderer into the hands of the magistrate, sayingthat it was a privileged place, and they could so maintain it by anorder of the holy oracle, insomuch that the city grew presently verypopulous. "

It was a quick and easy way of peopling a city. Doubtless the countryheld many such fugitives, --men lurking in woods or caves, hiding inmountain clefts, abiding wherever a place of safety offered, --hundredsof whom, no doubt, were glad to find a shelter among men and behindwalls of defence. But it was probably a sorry population, made up of thewaifs of mankind, many of whom had been slaves or murderers. There werecertainly no women among this desperate horde, and Romulus appealed invain to the neighboring cities to let his people obtain wives from amongtheir maidens. It was not safe for the citizens of Rome to go abroad toseek wives for themselves; the surrounding peoples rejected the appealof Romulus with scorn and disdain; unless something was done Rome badefair to remain a city of bachelors. 

In this dilemma Romulus conceived a plan to win wives for his people. Hesent word abroad that he had discovered the altar of the god Consus, whopresided over secret counsels, and he invited the citizens of theneighboring towns to come to Rome and take part in a feast with which heproposed to celebrate the festal day of the deity. This was the 21st ofAugust, just four months after the founding of the city, --that is, if itwas the same year. 

There were to be sacrifices to Consus, where libations would be pouredinto the flames that consumed the victims. These would be followed byhorse-and chariot-races, banquets, and other festivities. The promise ofmerry-making brought numerous spectators from the nearer cities, somedoubtless drawn by curiosity to see what sort of a commonwealth thiswas that had grown up so suddenly on the sheep pastures of the PalatineHill; and they found their wives and daughters as curious and eager forenjoyment as themselves, and brought them along, ignoring the scorn withwhich they had lately rejected the Roman proposals for wives. It was areligious festival, and therefore safe; so visitors came from the citiesof Coenina, Crustumerium, and Antemna, and a multitude from theneighboring country of the Sabines. 

The sacrifices over, the games began. The visitors, excited by theraces, became scattered about among the Romans. But as the chariots, drawn by flying horses, sped swiftly over the ground, and the eyes ofthe visitors followed them in their flight, Romulus gave a preconcertedsignal, and immediately each Roman seized a maiden whom he had managedto get near and carried her struggling and screaming from the ground. Asthey did so, each called out "Talasia, " a word which means spinning, andwhich afterwards became the refrain of a Roman marriage song. 

The games at once broke up in rage and confusion. But the visitors wereunarmed and helpless. Their anger could be displayed only in words, andRomulus told them boldly that they owed their misfortune to their pride. But all would go well with their daughters, he said, since their newhusbands would take the place with them of home and family. 

This reasoning failed to satisfy the fathers who had been robbed soviolently of their daughters, and they had no sooner reached home thanmany of them seized their arms and marched against their faithlesshosts. First came the people of Coenina; but the Romans defeated them, and Romulus killed their king. Then came the people of Crustumerium andAntemna, but they too were defeated. The prisoners were taken into Romeand made citizens of the new commonwealth. 

But it was the Sabines who had most to deplore, for they had come inmuch the greatest number, and it was principally the Sabine virgins whomthe Romans had borne off from the games. Titus Tatius, the king of theSabines, therefore resolved upon a signal revenge, and took time togather a large army, with which he marched against Rome. 

The war that followed was marked by two romantic incidents. Near theTiber is a hill, --afterwards known as the Capitoline Hill, --which wasdivided from the Palatine Hill by a low and swampy valley. On this hillRomulus had built a fortress, as a sort of outwork of his new city. Ithappened that Tarpeius, the chief who held this fortress, had a daughternamed Tarpeia, who was deeply affected by that love of finery which hascaused abundant mischief since her day. When she saw the golden collarsand bracelets which many of the Sabines wore, her soul was filled withlonging, and she managed to let them know that she would betray thefortress into their hands if they would give her the bright things whichthey wore upon their arms. 

They consented, and she secretly opened to them a gate of the fortress. But as they marched through the gate, and the traitress waited toreceive her reward, the Sabine soldiers threw on her the bright shieldswhich they wore on their arms, and she was crushed to death beneaththeir weight. The steep rock of the Capitoline Hill from which traitorswere afterwards thrown was called, after her, the Tarpeian Rock. 

[Illustration: ROME FROM THE DOME OF ST. PETER'S. ]

The fortress thus captured, the valley between the hill and the citybecame the scene of battle. Here the Sabines repulsed the Romans, driving them back to one of their gates, through which the fugitivesrushed in confusion, shutting it hastily behind them. But--if we maytrust the legend--the gate refused to stay shut. It opened again of itsown accord. They closed it twice more, and twice more it swung open. Thevictorious Sabines, who had now reached it, began to rush in; but justthen, from the Temple of Janus, near by, there burst forth a mightystream of water, which swept the Sabines away and saved Rome fromcapture. Therefore, in after-days, the gates of the Temple of Janusstood always wide open in time of war, that the god might go out, if hewould, to fight for the Romans. 

Another battle took place in the valley, and the Romans again began toflee. Romulus now prayed to Jupiter, and vowed to erect to him a templeas Jupiter Stator, --that is, the "stayer, "--if he would stay the Romansin their flight. Jupiter did so, or, at any rate, the Romans turnedagain to the fight, which now waxed furious. What would have been itsresult we cannot tell, for it was brought to an end by the otherromantic incident of which we have spoken. 

In fact, while the fathers of the Sabine virgins retained their angeragainst the Romans, the virgins themselves, who had now long beenbrides, had become comforted, most of them being as attached to theirhusbands as they had been to their parents before; and in the midst ofthe furious battle between their nearest relatives the lately abducteddamsels were seen rushing down the Palatine Hill, and forcing their way, with appealing eyes and dishevelled hair, in between the combatants. 

"Make us not twice captives!" they earnestly exclaimed, sayingpathetically that if the war went on they would be widowed orfatherless, both of which sad alternatives they deplored. 

The result of this appeal was a happy one. Both sides let fall theirarms, and peace was declared upon the spot, it being recognized thatthere could be no closer bond of unity than that made by the daughtersof the Sabines and wives of the Romans. The two people agreed to becomeone, the Sabines making their new home on the Capitoline and QuirinalHills, and the Romans continuing to occupy the Palatine. As for thewomen, there was established in their honor the feast called Matronalia, in which husbands gave presents to their wives and lovers to theirbetrothed. Romulus and Tatius were to rule jointly, and afterwards theking of Rome should be alternately of Roman and Sabine birth. 

After five years Tatius was killed in a quarrel, and Romulus became soleking. Under him Rome grew rapidly. He was successful in his wars, andenriched his people with the spoils of his enemies In rule he was justand gentle, and punished those guilty of crime not by death, but byfines of sheep or oxen. It is said, though, that he grew somewhatarrogant, and was accustomed to receive his people dressed in scarletand lying on a couch of state, where he was surrounded by a body ofyoung men called _Celeres_, from the speed with which they flew toexecute his orders. 

For nearly forty years his reign continued, and then his end camestrangely. One day he called the people together in the Field of Mars. But suddenly there arose a frightful storm, with such terrible thunderand lightning and such midnight darkness that the people fled homewardin affright through the drenching rain. That was the last of Romulus. Hewas never seen in life again. He may have been slain by enemies, but thepopular belief was that Mars, his father, had carried him up to heavenin his chariot. All that the people knew was that one night, whenProculus Julius, a friend of the king, was on his way from Alba to Rome, he met Romulus by the way, his stature beyond that of man, and his faceshowing the beauty of the gods. 

Proculus asked him why he had left the people to sorrow and wickedsurmises, for some said that the senators had made away with him. Romulus replied that it was the wish of the gods that, after building acity that was destined to the greatest empire and glory, he should go toheaven and dwell with the gods. 

"Go and tell my people that they must not weep for me any more, " hesaid; "but bid them to be brave and warlike, and so shall they make mycity the greatest on the earth. "

This story satisfied the people that their king had been made a god; sothey built a temple to him, and always afterwards worshipped him underthe name of the god Quirinus. A festival called the Quirinalia wascelebrated each year on the 17th of February, the day on which he hadvanished from the eyes of men. 

_THE HORATII AND CURIATII. _

Romulus was succeeded by a king named Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin, who so loved peace that during his reign Rome had no wars and noenemies, so that the doors of the Temple of Janus were never once openedwhile he was on the throne. He built a temple to Faith, that men mightlearn to avoid falsehood and to act honestly. He taught the people tosacrifice nothing but the fruits of the earth, cakes of flour, androasted corn, and to shed no blood upon the altars. And so Home waspeaceful and prosperous throughout his long reign, and grew rapidly inwealth and population. He died at length when eighty years of age, andwas succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, a king of Roman birth. 

The new king loved war as much as the gentle Numa had loved peace. Underhis rule the gates of the Temple of Janus were soon thrown open again, long to remain so. His first war was with the city of Alba Longa, thefoster-parent of Rome. Some border troubles brought on hostilities, warbroke out, and an Alban army marched until within fifteen miles of Rome. And here took place a celebrated incident. The two armies were drawn outon the field, and were about to plunge into the dreadful work ofbattle, when the Alban king, to whom the war seemed a foolish anduseless one, stood out between the two armies and spoke in the hearingof both. 

He reminded them that the Romans and Albans were of the same origin, andthat they were surrounded by nations who would like to see both of themweakened. He proposed, therefore, that the dispute between them shouldbe decided not by battle, but by a duel between a few soldiers, and thatthe side which won should rule the other. This proposal seemed to Tullusa sensible one, and he accepted it, offering as the combatants on hisside three brothers known as the Horatii. 

The Alban army had also three brave brothers, of about the same age asthe Roman champions, known as the Curiatii, and these were chosen touphold the honor and dominion of Alba against Rome. So, with the twoarmies as spectators, and a broad space between for the deadly duel, thesix champions, fully armed, faced each other in the field. 

The onset was fierce, and set every heart in the two armies throbbing inhope or dread. But after a short time a shout of triumph went up fromthe Alban host. Two of the Horatii lay stretched in death on the field. The Curiatii were all wounded, but they were now three to one, so theremaining Horatius turned and fled, though he was still unhurt. Dismayfell on the Romans as they saw their single champion in full flight, pursued by his opponents. The glad shouts of the Albans redoubled. 

Suddenly a change came. The fugitive, whose flight had been a feint, toseparate his foes, now turned and saw that the wounded men were laggingin pursuit and were widely separated. Running quickly back, he met thenearest, and killed him with a blow. The other two were met and slain insuccession before they could aid each other. Then, holding up his bloodysword in triumph, the victor invited the plaudits of his friends, whileshedding dismay on Alban hearts. 

The Romans, now lords of the Albans, returned to Rome in triumph, theiradvent to the city being marked by the first of those pompousprocessions which in after-years became known as Roman Triumphs, andwere celebrated with the utmost splendor and costliness of display. 

But the affair of the Horatii and Curiatii was not yet at an end. It wasto be finished in blood and crime. A sister of the Horatii was theaffianced bride of one of the Curiatii, and as she saw her victoriousbrother enter the city, bearing on his shoulders the military cloakwhich she had wrought for her lover with her own hands, she broke intowild invectives, tearing her hair, and upbraiding her brother withbitter words. Roused to fury by this accusation, the victor, in aparoxysm of rage, struck his sister to the heart with the sword whichhad slain her lover, crying out, "So perish the Roman maiden who shallweep for her country's enemy. "

This dreadful deed filled with horror the hearts of all who beheld it. Men cried that it was a crime against the law and the gods, too great tobe atoned for by the victor's services. He was seized and dragged to thetribunal of the two judges who dealt with crimes of bloodshed. Theseheard the evidence of the crime, and condemned him to death, in despiteof what he had done for Rome. 

But the Roman law permitted an appeal from the judges to the people. This appeal Horatius made, and it was tried before the assembly ofRomans. Here his father spoke in his favor, saying that in his opinionthe maiden deserved her fate. Remembrance of the great service performedby Horatius was also strong with the people, and the voice of theassembly freed him from the sentence of death. But blood had been shed, and blood required atonement, so a sum of money was set aside to pay forsacrifices to atone for this dreadful deed. Ever afterwards thesesacrifices were performed by members of the Horatian clan. 

In a later war the Albans failed to aid the Romans, as they wererequired to do by the terms of alliance. As a result the city of Albawas destroyed, and the Albans forced to come and live in Rome, theCælial Hill being given them for a dwelling-place. 

_THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. _

The tale we have now to tell forces us to pass rapidly over years ofhistory. After several kings of Roman and Sabine birth had reigned, aforeigner, of Greek descent, came to the throne of Rome. This was oneLucomo, the son of a native of Corinth, who had settled at Tarquinii inItaly. Growing weary of Tarquinii, Lucomo left that city, with hisfamily and wealth, and made his way to Rome. As he came near the gatesof the city an eagle swooped down, lifted the cap from his head, and, bearing it high into the air, descended and placed it on his head again. His wife Tanaquil, who was skilled in augury, told him this was a happyomen, and that he was destined to become great. 

[Illustration: THE FORUM OF ROME. ]

And so he did. His riches, courage, and wisdom brought him great favorin Rome, and on the death of their king Ancus the people chose LuciusTarquinius--as they called him, from his native city--to reign over themin his stead. He proved a valiant and successful warrior, and in timesof peace did noble work. He built great sewers to drain the city, constructed a large circus or race-course, and a forum or market-place, and built a wall of stone around the city in place of the old woodenwall. He also began to build a great temple on the Capitoline Hill, which was designed to be the temple of the gods of Rome. In the endLucius was murdered by the sons of King Ancus, who declared that he hadrobbed them of the throne. 

There is a story of the deed of an augur in his reign which is worthrepeating, whether we believe it or not. Lucius had little trust in theaugur, and said to him, "Come, tell me by your auguries whether thething I have in my mind may be done or not. " "It may, " said Attus, theaugur. "It is this, " said the king, laughing: "it was in my mind thatyou should cut this whetstone in two with this razor. Take them and seeif you can do it. "

Attus took the razor and whetstone, and with a bold stroke cut thelatter in two. From that time on Lucius did nothing without firstconsulting the augurs, and testing the purposes of the gods by theflight of birds, and--so say the legends--he prospered accordingly. 

The cause of the death of Lucius was this. One day a boy who dwelt inthe palace fell asleep in its portico, and as he lay there someattendants who passed by saw a flame playing lambently around his head. Alarmed at the sight, they were about to throw water upon him toextinguish the flame, when Tanaquil, the queen, who had also seen it, forbade them. She told the king of what had happened, and said that theboy whom they were bringing up so meanly was destined to become greatand noble. She bade him, therefore, to rear the child in a way befittinghis destiny. 

The boy, whose name was Servius Tullius, was thereupon brought up as aprince, and when old enough married the king's daughter. Lucius reignedforty years, and then the sons of Ancus, fearing to be robbed of theirclaim to the throne by young Servius, who had become very popular, managed to get an audience with and kill the king. 

The murderers gained nothing by their deed of blood. Queen Tanaquilshrewdly told the people that Lucius was only stunned by the blow, andthat he wished them to obey the orders of Servius. To the young man shesaid, "The kingdom is yours; if you have no plans of your own, thenfollow mine. " For several days Servius acted as king, and then, thepeople and senate having grown used to seeing him on the throne, thedeath of Lucius was declared and Servius proclaimed king. He had theconsent of the senate, but had not asked that of the people, being thefirst king of Rome who reigned without the votes of the assembly of theRoman people. 

Servius Tullius reigned long and won victories, but his greatesttriumphs were those of peace. He formed a league with the thirty citiesof Latium, and is said to have taken a census of the people of the city, which was found to have eighty-three thousand inhabitants. To strengthenhis power he married his two daughters to two sons of Lucius Tarquinius, a well-intended act which led to a tragic and dreadful deed. 

The daughters of Servius were very unlike in nature, and the same may besaid of their husbands, and they became unequally mated. LuciusTarquinius was proud and full of evil, while his wife, the elder Tullia, was good and gentle. Aruns Tarquinius was of a mild and kindly nature, while his wife, the younger Tullia, was cruel and ambitious. They werethus sadly mismated. But the evil pair saw in each other kindredspirits, and in the end Lucius secretly killed his wife, and the youngerTullia her husband. The wicked pair then married, and proceeded to carryout the purposes of their base hearts. 

Servius, being himself of humble birth, had favored the people at theexpense of the nobles. He even made a law that no king should rule afterhim, but that two men chosen by the people should govern them year byyear. Thus it was that the commons came to love him and the nobles tohate him, and when he asked for a vote of the people on his king-shipthere was not a voice raised against him. 

Lucius, whom his wicked wife steadily goaded to ambitious aims, conspired with the nobles against the king. There were brotherhoods ofthe young nobles, pledged to support each other in deeds of oppression. These he joined, and gained their aid. Then he waited till the harvestseason, when the commons were in the fields, gathering the ripened corn. 

This absence of the king's friends gave him the opportunity he wished. Gathering a band of armed men, he suddenly entered the Forum, and tookhis seat on the king's throne, before the door of the senate-chamber, from which Servius was accustomed to judge the people. Word of this actof treason was borne to the old king, who at once hastened to the Forumand sternly asked the usurper why he had dared to take that seat. 

Lucius insolently answered that it was his father's throne, and that hehad the best right to it. Then, as the aged and unguarded king mountedthe steps of the senate-house, his ambitious son-in-law sprang up, caught him by the middle, and flung him headlong down the steps to theground. Then he went into the senate-chamber and called the senatorstogether, as though he were already king. 

The old monarch, sadly shaken by his fall, rose to his feet and made hisway slowly towards his home on the Esquiline Hill. But when he came nearit he was overtaken by some bravos whom Lucius had sent in pursuit. These killed the unprotected old man, and left him lying in his blood inthe middle of the street. 

And now was done a deed which has aroused the execrations of mankind inall later ages. Tullia, who had instigated her husband to the murder ofher father, waited with impatience until it was performed. Then, mounting her chariot, she bade the coachman to drive to the Forum, where, heedless of the crowd of men who had assembled, she called Luciusfrom the senate-house, and cried to him, in accents of triumph, "Hail tothee, King Tarquinius!"

Wicked as Lucius was, he was not as shameless as his wife, and sternlybade her to go home. She obeyed, taking the same street as her fatherhad followed. Soon reaching the spot where the bleeding body of the oldking lay stretched across the way, the coachman drew up his horses andpointed out to Tullia the dreadful spectacle. 

"Drive on, " she harshly commanded. "I cannot, " he replied. "The streetis too narrow to pass without crushing the king's body. " "Drive on, " sheagain fiercely ordered, and the coachman did so. Tullia went to her homewith her father's blood upon the wheels of her chariot, and with theexecration of all good men upon her head. And thus it was that LuciusTarquinius and his wicked wife succeeded the good king Servius upon thethrone. 

We may tell here briefly the end of this evil pair. Tarquin the Proud, as he is known in history, reigned as a tyrant and oppressor, while hiswife was viewed with horror by all virtuous matrons. At length thepeople rose against a base deed of the tyrant's son, and the wickedTullia fled in terror from her house. No one sought to stop her in herflight; but all, men and women alike, cursed her as she passed, andprayed that the furies of her father's blood might take revenge for herdreadful deed. 

She never saw Rome again. Tarquin sought long to regain his crown, butin vain, and the wicked usurpers died in exile. No king ever again ruledover the Romans. Tarquin's tyranny had given the people enough of kings, and the law of good Servius Tullius was at last carried out. 

_THE BOOKS OF THE SIBYL. _

While Tarquin the Proud was king a strange thing happened at Rome. Oneday an unknown woman came to the king, bearing in her arms nine books, which she offered to sell to him at a certain price. She told him thatthey contained the prophecies of the Sibyl of Cumæ, and that from themmight be learned the destiny of Rome and the way to carry out thisdestiny. 

But the price she asked for her books seemed to the king exorbitant, andhe refused to buy them, whereupon the woman went away from the palaceand burned three of the volumes. She then returned with six only andoffered them to the king, but demanded the same price for the six as shehad before done for the nine. King Tarquin heard this demand withlaughter and mockery, and again refused to buy. The woman once more leftthe palace, and burned three more of the books. 

To the king's astonishment his strange visitor soon returned, bearingthe three books that remained. On being asked their price, she named thesame sum as she had demanded for the six and the nine. This was ceasingto be matter for mockery. There might be some important mysteryconcealed behind this strange demand. The king sent for the augurs ofthe court, told them what had happened, and asked what he should do. They told him that he had done very wrong. In refusing the books he hadrefused a gift of the gods. By all means he must buy the books that wereleft. He bought them, therefore, at the Sibyl's price. As for the woman, she was never seen again. 

The books were placed in a chest of stone, and kept underground in thegreat temple which his father had begun on the Capitoline Hill, andwhich he had completed. Two men were appointed to guard them, who werecalled the two men of the sacred books; and no treasure could have beenkept with more care and devotion than these mysterious rolls. 

The temple in which these books were kept was the grandest edifice Romehad yet known. When Tarquin proposed to build it he found the chosensite already occupied by many holy places, sacred to the gods of theSabines, the first dwellers on the Capitoline Hill. The augurs consultedthe gods to see if these holy places could safely be removed, to makeroom for the new temple. The answer came that they might take away allexcept the holy places of the god of Youth and of Terminus, the god ofboundaries. This was accounted a happy augury, for it seemed to meanthat the city should always retain its youth and that no enemy shouldremove its boundaries. And when the foundations of the temple were dug ahuman head was found, which was held to be a sign that the CapitolineHill should be the head of all the earth. So a great temple was built, and consecrated to Jupiter and to Juno and to Minerva, the greatest ofthe Etruscan gods. This edifice, afterwards known as the Capitol, wasthe most sacred and revered edifice of later Rome. 

In the vaults of this temple the sacred books of the Sibyl weresedulously kept, and here they were consulted from time to time, asoccasions arose in the history of the city when divine guidance seemednecessary. None of the people were permitted to gaze within the sacredcell in which they lay. Only the augurs consulted them, and the word ofthe augurs had to be taken for what they revealed. It may be that theaugurs themselves invented all that they told, for the books at lengthperished in the flames, and no man knows what secret lore they reallycontained. 

It was during the wars of Sulla and Marius (83 B. C. ) that this disasteroccurred. The Capitol was burned, and with it those famous oracles, which had so long directed the counsels of the nation. Their loss threwRome into the deepest consternation, the loss of the Capitol itselfseeming small beside that of these famous scrolls. 

To replace them as far as possible, the senate sent ambassadors to thevarious temples of Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, within which wereSibyls, or oracle-speaking priestesses. These collected such oraclesreferring to Rome as they could find, about one thousand lines in all, and brought them to Rome, where they were placed in the same locality inthe new Capitol that they had occupied in the old. 

These oracles do not appear to have predicted future events, but wereconsulted to discover the religious observances necessary to avert greatcalamities and to expiate prodigies. During the reign of Augustus theywere removed to the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and all thefalse Sibylline leaves which were extant were collected and burned. Theyremained here until shortly after the year 400 A. D. , when they werepublicly burned by Stilicho, a famous general of Christian Rome, asimpious documents of heathen times. 

_THE STORY OF LUCRETIA. _

We have next to tell how Tarquin the Proud lost his throne, through hisown tyranny and the criminal action of his son. Once upon a time, whenthis king was at the height of his power, he, as was usual, offeredsacrifices to the gods on the altar in the palace court-yard. But fromthe altar there crawled out a snake, which devoured the offerings beforethe flames could reach them. 

This was an alarming omen. The augurs were consulted, but none of themcould explain it. So Tarquin sent two of his sons to the Temple ofDelphi, in Greece, whose oracle was famous in all lands, to ask counselof Apollo concerning this prodigy. With these two princes, Titus andAruns by name, went their cousin, Lucius Junius, a youth who seemed solacking in wit that men called him Brutus, --that is, the "Dullard. " Oneevidence of his lack of wit was that he would eat wild figs with honey. Just in what way this was an evidence of want of good sense we do notknow, though doubtless the Romans did. 

But Brutus was by no means the fool that men fancied him. He was shrewdinstead of stupid. His father had left him abundant wealth, to whichhis uncle, King Tarquin, might at any time take a fancy, and sweep himaway to enjoy it. The king had killed his brother for his wealth, andwould be likely to serve him in the same way if he deemed him wiseenough to fight for his inheritance. So, preferring life to money, Brutus feigned to be wanting in sense. 

When he went to Delphi he took with him a hollow staff of horn, which hehad filled with gold, and offered this staff to the oracle as a likenessof himself, --perhaps as one empty of wit and whose whole merit lay inhis gold. When the three young men had performed the bidding of theking, and asked the oracle the meaning of the prodigy, they were toldthat it portended the fall of Tarquin. Then they said, "O Lord Apollo, tell us which of us shall be king of Rome. " From the depth of thesanctuary there came a voice in reply, "The one among you who shallfirst kiss his mother. "

This was one of those enigmas in which the Delphian oracle usuallyspoke, saying things with a double meaning, and which men were apt totake amiss. It was so now. The two princes drew lots which of themshould first kiss their mother on his return; and they agreed to keepthe oracle secret from their brother Sextus, lest he should be kingrather than they. But Brutus was wiser than them both. As they left thetemple together, he pretended to stumble and fell with his face to theground. He then kissed the earth, saying, "The earth is the true motherof us all. "

On their return to Rome the princes found that their father was at war. He was besieging the city of Ardea, which lay south of Rome; and as thiscity was strong and well defended the king and his army were kept a longwhile before it, waiting until famine, their ally, should force theinhabitants to surrender. While the army was thus waiting in idlenessits officers had leisure for feasts and diversions, and one of theking's sons found time to indulge in fatal mischief. This arose from asupper in the tent of Prince Sextus, at which his brothers Titus andAruns, and his cousin Tarquin of Collatia, were present. 

While they feasted a dispute arose between them, as to which had theworthiest wife. It ended in a proposition of Tarquin, "Let us go and seewith our own eyes what our wives are doing, and we can then best decidewhich is the worthiest. " This proposition hit with their humor, and, mounting their horses, they rode to Rome. Here they found the wives ofthe three princes merrily engaged at a banquet. They then rode on toCollatia. It was now late at night, but they found Lucretia, the wife oftheir cousin, neither sleeping nor feasting, but working at the loom, with her handmaids busily engaged around her. 

On seeing this, they all cried, "Lucretia is the worthiest lady. " Sheceased her work to entertain them, after which they took to their horsesagain, and rode back to the camp before Ardea. 

But Sextus was seized with a vile passion for his cousin's wife, and afew days afterwards went alone to Collatia, where Lucretia received himwith much hospitality, as her husband's kinsman. He treated hershamefully in return, forcing her, with wicked threats, to accept him asher lover and husband, in defiance of the laws of God and man. 

As soon as Sextus had left her and returned to the camp, Lucretia sentto Rome for her father and to Ardea for her husband. Tarquin broughtwith him his cousin Lucius Junius, or Brutus the Dullard. When theyarrived the lady, with bitter tears, told them of the wickedness ofSextus, and said, "If you are men, avenge it!" They heard her tale inhorror, and swore to deeply revenge her wrong. 

"I am not guilty, " she now said; "yet I too must share in the punishmentof this deed, lest any should think that they may be false to theirhusbands and live. " As she spoke she drew a knife from her bosom andstabbed herself to the heart. 

As they saw her fall, a cry of horror arose from her husband and father. But Brutus, who saw that the time had come for him to throw off hispretence of stupidity and act the man, drew the knife from the bleedingwound and held it up, saying, in solemn accents, "By this blood, I swearthat I will visit this deed upon King Tarquin and all his accursed race!And no man hereafter shall reign as king in Rome, lest he may do thelike wickedness. "

He then handed the knife to the others, and bade them to take the sameoath. This they did, wondering at the sudden transformation in Brutus. They then took up the body of the slain woman and carried it into theforum of the town, crying to the gathering people, "Behold the deeds ofthe wicked family of Tarquin, the tyrant of Rome!"

The people, maddened by the sight, hastily sought their arms, and whilesome guarded the gates, that none might carry the news to the king, theothers followed Brutus to Rome. Here the story of the wickedness ofSextus and the self-sacrifice of Lucretia ran through the city likewildfire, and a multitude gathered in the Forum, where Brutus addressedthem in fervent words. He recalled to them all the tyranny of Tarquinand the vices of his sons, reminding them of the murder of Servius, theimpious act of Tullia, and ending with an earnest recital of the wrongsof the virtuous Lucretia, whose bleeding corpse still lay in evidence inthe forum of Collatia. 

[Illustration: BRUTUS ORDERING THE EXECUTION OF HIS SONS. ]

His words went to the souls of his hearers. An assembly of the peoplebeing quickly called, it was voted that the Tarquins should be banished, and the office of king should be forever abolished in Rome. Tullia, learning of the cause of the tumult, hastily left the palace, and fledfrom Rome in her chariot through throngs that followed her with threatsand curses. Brutus, perhaps with the crimsoned knife still in his hand, bade the young men to follow him, and set off in haste to Ardea, tospread through the army the story of the deed of crime and blood. 

Meanwhile, Tarquin had been told of the revolt, and was hurrying to Rometo put it down. Brutus turned aside from the road that he might not meethim, and hastened on to the camp, where the story of the revolt and itscause was told the soldiers. On hearing the story the whole army brokeinto a tumult of indignation, drove the king's sons from the camp, anddemanded to be led to Rome. The siege of Ardea was at once abandoned andthe backward march began. 

Meanwhile, Tarquin had reached the city, but only to find the gatesclosed against him and stern men on the walls. "You cannot enter here, "they cried. "You are banished from Rome, you and all of yours, and shallnever set foot within its walls again. And you are the last of ourkings. No man after you shall ever call himself king of Rome. "

Just in what threats, promises, and persuasions Tarquin indulged we donot know. But the men on the walls were not to be moved by threats orpromises, and he was obliged to take himself away, a crownless wanderer. As for Sextus, to whom all the trouble was due, some say that he waskilled in a town whose people he had betrayed, while others say that hewas slain in battle while his father was fighting to regain his throne. 

But this is certain, no king ever reigned in Rome again. The people, talking among each other, said, "Let us follow the wise laws of goodKing Servius. He bade us to meet in our centuries (or hundreds) and tochoose two men year by year to govern us, instead of a king. This let usdo, as Servius would have done himself had he not been basely murdered. "

So the centuries of the people met in the Campus Martius (Field ofMars), and there chose two men, --Brutus, the leader in the revolution, and Lucius Tarquin, the husband of the fated Lucretia. These officialswere afterwards called Consuls, and were given ruling power in Rome. But they had to lay down their office at the end of the year and besucceeded by two others elected in their stead. The people, however, were afraid of the very name of Tarquin, and in electing Lucius to theconsulate it seemed as if they had put a new Tarquin on the throne. Sothey prayed him to leave the city; and, taking all his goods, he wentaway and settled at Lavinium, a new consul being elected in his place. Alaw was now passed that all the house of the Tarquins should bebanished, whether they were of the king's family or not. 

Thus ended the kingly period in Rome, after six kings had followedRomulus. With the consuls many of the laws of King Servius, whichTarquin had set aside, were restored, and a much greater degree offreedom came to the people of Rome. But that there might not now seem tobe two kings instead of one, it was decreed that only one of the consulsshould rule at a time, each of them acting as ruler for a month, andthen giving over the power to his associate. 

_HOW BRAVE HORATIUS KEPT THE BRIDGE. _

The banished King Tarquin did not lightly yield his realm. He roused theneighboring cities against Rome and fought fiercely for his throne. Soonafter he was exiled from Rome he sent messengers there for his goods. These the senate decreed should be given him. But his messengers hadmore secret work to do. They formed a plot with many of the young noblesto bring back the king, and among these traitors were Titus andTiberius, the sons of Brutus. 

A slave overheard the conspirators and betrayed them to the consuls, andthey were seized and brought to the judgment-seat in the Forum. HereBrutus, sitting in judgment, beheld his two sons among the culprits. Heloved them, but he loved justice more, and though he grieved deeplyinwardly, his face was grave and stern as he gave judgment that the lawmust take its course. So the sons of this stern old Roman were scourgedwith rods before his eyes, and then, with the other conspirators, werebeheaded by the lictors, while he looked steadily on, never turning hiseyes from the dreadful sight. But men could see that his heart bled forhis sons. 

Soon afterwards Tarquin led an army of Etruscans against Rome, and thetwo consuls marched against them at the head of the Roman army. In thebattle that followed Brutus met Aruns, the king's son, in advance of thelines of battle. Aruns, seeing Brutus dressed in royal robes andattended by the lictors of a king, was filled with anger, and levelledhis spear and spurred his horse against him. Brutus met him inmid-career with levelled spear. Both were run through, and together felldead upon the field. 

The day ended with neither party victors. But during the night awoodland deity was heard speaking from a forest near by. "One man morehas fallen of the Etruscans than of the Romans, " it said; "the Romansare to conquer. " This strange oracle ended the war. It was a reason, surely, for which war was never ended before or since. The Etruscans, affrighted, marched hastily home; while the Romans carried home theirslain patriot, for whom their women mourned a whole year, in honor ofhis noble service in avenging Lucretia. 

The banished king still craved his lost kingdom, and made other effortsto regain it. Having failed in his first attempt, he went to anothercity, named Clusium, in the distant part of Etruria, and here besoughtLars Porsenna, the king of that city, to aid him recover his throne. Lars Porsenna, with a fellow-feeling for his dethroned brother king, raised a large army and marched with Tarquin and his fellow-exilesagainst defiant Rome. 

The Romans now awaited him at home, and the two armies met on the hillcalled Janiculum, beyond the river from the city. Here came the crash ofbattle, but the men of Clusium proved the stronger, and after a sharpstruggle the Romans gave way and were driven pell-mell down the hill andacross the bridge which spanned the Tiber at this point. This was awooden bridge on which the Romans set great store, as it was their onlymeans of crossing the stream. But it now was likely to serve as a meansof the loss of their city. Their flying army was pouring in panic acrossit, with the Etruscans in hot pursuit, seeking strenuously to win thebridge. 

The bridge must be speedily destroyed or the city would be lost, but itseemed too late for this; unless the enemy could in some way be keptback till the bridge was cut down, Tarquin and his allies would be inthe streets of Rome. 

At this juncture a brave and stalwart son of Rome, Horatius Cocles byname, stepped forward and offered his life in his city's defence. "Cutaway with all haste, " he said; "I will keep the bridge until it falls. "Two others, Spurius Lartius and Titus Herminius, sprang to his side, andthe three, fully armed and stout of heart, ranged themselves across thenarrow causeway, while behind them the axes of the Romans playedringingly upon the supports of the bridge. 

On came the Etruscans in force. But the bridge was so narrow that only afew could advance at once, and these found in the way the sharp spearsand keen-edged blades of the patriot three. Down went the leadingEtruscans, and others pressed on, only to fall, till the defenders ofthe bridge had a bulwark of the slain in their front. 

[Illustration: HORATIUS KEEPING THE BRIDGE. ]

And now the bridge creaked and groaned as the axes kept up their livelyplay, the ring of steel finding its chorus in the cheering shouts of theRomans on the bank. 

"Back! back!" cried the axemen. "It will be down in a minute more; backfor your lives!"

"Back!" cried Horatius to his comrades, and they hastily retreated; buthe stood unmoving, still boldly facing the foe. 

"Fly! It is about to fall!" was the shout. 

"Let it, " cried Horatius, without yielding a step. 

And there he stood alone, defying the whole army of the Etruscans. Froma distance they showered their javelins on him, but he caught them onhis shield and stood unhurt. Furious that they should be kept from theirprey by a single man, they gathered to rush upon him and drive him fromhis post by main force; but just then the creaking beams gave way, andthe half of the bridge behind him fell with a mighty crash into thestream below. 

The Etruscans paused in their course at this crashing fall, and gazed, not without admiration, at the stalwart champion who had stayed an armyin its victorious career. He was theirs now; he could not escape; hislife should pay the penalty for their failure. 

But Horatius had no such thought. He looked down on the stream, andprayed to the god of the river, "O Father Tiber, I pray thee to receivethese arms and me who bear them, and to let thy waters befriend andsave me. "

Then, with a quick spring, he plunged, heavy with armor, into theswift-flowing stream, and struck out boldly for the shore. The foemenrushed upon the bridge and poured their darts thick about him; yet nonestruck him, and he swam safely to the shore, where his waiting friendsdrew him in triumph from the stream. 

For this grand deed of heroism the Romans set up a statue to Horatius inthe comitium, and gave him in reward as much land as he could drive hisplough round in the space of a whole day. Such deeds cannot be fitlytold in halting prose, and Lord Macaulay, in his "Lays of Ancient Rome, "has most ably and picturesquely told

 "How well Horatius kept the bridge In the brave days of old. "

But though Rome was saved from capture by assault, the war was notended, and other deeds of Roman heroism were to be done. Porsennapressed the siege of the city so closely that hunger became his ally, and the Romans suffered greatly. Then another patriot devoted his lifeto his city's good. This man, a young noble named Caius Mucius, went tothe senate and offered to go to the Etruscan camp and slay Lars Porsennain the midst of his men. 

His proposal acceded to, he crossed the stream by stealth and slippedcovertly into the camp, through which he made his way, seeking the king. At length he saw a man dressed in a scarlet robe and seated on a loftyseat, while many were about him, coming and going. "This must be KingPorsenna, " he said to himself, and he glided stealthily through thecrowd until he came near by, when, drawing a concealed dagger frombeneath his cloak, he sprang upon the man and stabbed him to the heart. 

But the bold assassin had made a sad mistake. The man he had slain wasnot the king, but his scribe, the king's chief officer. Being instantlyseized, he was brought before Porsenna, where the guards threatened himwith sharp torments unless he would truly answer all their questions. 

"Torments!" he said. "You shall see how little I care for them. "

And he thrust his right hand into the fire that was burning on thealtar, and held it there till it was completely consumed. 

King Porsenna looked at him with an admiration that subdued all anger. Never had he seen a man of such fortitude. 

"Go your way, " he cried, "for you have harmed yourself more than me. Youare a brave man, and I send you back to Rome free and unhurt. "

"And you are a generous king, " said Caius, "and shall learn more from mefor your kindness than tortures could have wrung from my lips. Know, then, that three hundred noble youths of Rome have bound themselves byoath to take your life. I am but the first; the others will in turn liein wait for you. I warn you to look well to yourself. "

He was then set free, and went back to the city, where he wasafterwards known as Scævola, the left-handed. 

The warning of Caius moved King Porsenna to offer the Romans terms ofpeace, which they gladly accepted. They were forced to give up all theland they had conquered on the west bank of the Tiber, and to agree notto use iron except to cultivate the earth. They were also to give ashostages ten noble youths and as many maidens. These were sent; but oneof the maidens, Cloelia by name, escaped from the Etruscan camp, and, bidding the other maidens to follow, fled to the river, into which theyall plunged and swam safely across to Rome. 

They were sent back by the Romans, whose way it was to keep theirpledges; but King Porsenna, admiring the courage of Cloelia, set herfree, and bade her choose such of the youths as she wished to go withher. She chose those of tenderest age, and the king set them free. 

The Romans rewarded Caius by a gift of land, and had a statue made ofCloelia, which was set up in the highest part of the Sacred Way. AndKing Porsenna led his army home, with Tarquin still dethroned. 

_THE BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS. _

A third time Tarquin the Proud marched against Rome, this time inalliance with the Latins, whose thirty cities had joined together anddeclared war against the Romans. But as many of the Romans had marriedLatin wives, and many of the Latins had got their wives from Rome, itwas resolved that the women on both sides, who preferred their nativeland to their husbands, might leave their new homes and take with themtheir virgin daughters. And, as the legend tells, all the Latin womenbut two remained in Rome, while all the Roman women returned with theirdaughters to their fathers' homes. 

The two armies met by the side of Lake Regillus, and there was fought abattle the story of which reads like a tale from the Iliad of Homer; forwe are told not of how the armies fought, but of how their champions metand fought in single combats upon the field. King Tarquin was there, nowhoary with years, yet sitting his horse and bearing his lance with thegrace and strength of a young man. And there was Titus his son, leadinginto battle all the banished band of the Tarquins. And with them wasOctavius Mamilius, the leader of the Latins, who swore to seat Tarquinagain on his throne and to make the Romans subjects of the Latins. 

On the Roman side were many true and tried warriors, among them TitusHerminius, one of those who fought on the bridge by the side of HoratiusCocles, when that champion fought so well for Rome. 

It is too long to tell how warrior rode against warrior with levelledlances, and how this one was struck through the breast and that onethrough the arm, and so on in true Homeric style. The battle was aseries of duels, like those fought on the plain of Troy. But at lengththe Tarquin band, under the lead of Titus, charged so fiercely that theRomans began to give way, many of their bravest having been slain. 

At this juncture Aulus, the leader of the Romans, rode up with his ownchosen band, and bade them level their lances and slay all, friend orfoe, whose faces were turned towards them. There was to be no mercy fora Roman whose face was turned from the field. This onset stopped theflight, and Aulus charged fiercely upon the Tarquins, praying, as he didso, to the divine warriors Castor and Pollux, to whom he vowed todedicate a temple if they would aid him in the fight. And he promisedthe soldiers that the two who should first break into the camp of theenemy should receive a rich reward. 

Then suddenly, at the head of the chosen band, appeared two unknownhorsemen, in the first bloom of youth and taller and fairer than mortalmen, while the horses they rode were white as the driven snow. On wentthe charge, led by these two noble strangers, before whom the enemy fledin mortal terror, while Titus, the last of the sons of King Tarquin, fell dead from his steed. The camp of the Latins being reached, thesetwo horsemen were the first to break into it, and soon the whole army ofthe enemy was in disorderly flight and the battle won. 

Aulus now sought the two strange horsemen, to give them the reward hehad promised; but he sought in vain; they were not to be found, amongeither the living or the dead, and no man had set eyes upon them sincethe camp was won. They had vanished as suddenly as they had appeared. But on the hard black rock which surrounds the lake was visible the markof a horse's hoof, such as no earthly steed could ever have made. Forages afterwards this mark remained. 

But the strangers appeared once again. It was known in Rome that thearmies were joined in battle, and the longing for tidings from the fieldgrew intense. Suddenly, as the sun went down behind the city walls, there were seen in the Forum two horsemen on milk-white steeds, tallerand fairer than the tallest and fairest of men. Their horses were bathedin foam, and they looked like men fresh from battle. 

Alighting near the Temple of Vesta, where a spring of water bubbles fromthe ground, these men, whom no Romans had ever seen before, washed fromtheir persons the battle-stains. As they did so men crowded round andeagerly questioned them. In reply, they told them how the battle hadbeen fought and won, --though in truth the battle ended only as the sunwent down over Lake Regillus. They then mounted their horses and rodefrom the Forum, and were seen no more. Men sought them far and wide, butno one set eyes on them again. 

Then Aulus told the Romans how he had prayed to Castor and Pollux, thedivine twins, and said that it could be none but they who had broken sofiercely into the enemy's camp, and had borne the news of victory withmore than mortal speed to Rome. So he built the temple he had vowed tothe hero gods, and gave there rich offerings as the rewards he hadpromised to the two who should first enter the camp of the foe. 

Thus ended the hopes of King Tarquin, against whom the gods had takenarms. His sons and all his family slain, he was left ruined andhopeless, and retired to the city of Cumæ, whence formerly the Sibyl hadcome to his court. Here he died, and thus passed away the last of theRoman kings. 

_THE REVOLT OF THE PEOPLE. _

The overthrow of the kings of Rome did not relieve the people from alltheir oppression. The inhabitants of that city had long been dividedinto two great classes, the Patricians, or nobles, and the Plebeians, orcommon people, and the former held in their hand nearly all the wealthand power of the state. The senate, the law-making body, were allPatricians; the consuls, the executors of the law, were chosen fromtheir ranks; and the Plebeians were left with few rights and littleprotection. 

It was through the avarice of money-lending nobles that the people werechiefly oppressed. There were no laws limiting the rate of interest, andthe rich lent to the poor at extravagant rates of usury. The interest, when not paid, was added to the debt, so that in time it becameimpossible for many debtors to pay. 

And the laws against debtors had become terribly severe. They might, with all their families, be held as slaves. Or if the debtor refused tosell himself to his creditor, and still could not pay his debt, he mightbe imprisoned in fetters for sixty days. At the end of that time, if nofriend had paid his debt, he could be put to death, or sold as a slaveinto a foreign state. If there were several creditors, they couldactually cut his body to pieces, each taking a piece proportional insize to his claim. 

This cruel severity was more than any people could long endure. It ledto a revolution in Rome. In the year 495 B. C. , fifteen years after theTarquins had been expelled, a poor debtor, who had fought valiantly inthe wars, broke from his prison, and--with his clothes in tatters andchains clanking upon his limbs--appealed eloquently to the people in theForum, and showed them on his emaciated body the scars of the manybattles in which he had fought. 

His tale was a sad one. While he served in the Sabine war, the enemy hadpillaged and burned his house; and when he returned home, it was to findhis cattle stolen and his farm heavily taxed. Forced to borrow money, the interest had brought him deeply into debt. Finally he had beenattacked by pestilence, and being unable to work for his creditor, hehad been thrown into prison and cruelly scourged, the marks of the lashbeing still evident upon his bleeding back. 

This piteous story roused its hearers to fury. The whole city broke intotumult, as the woful tale passed from lip to lip. Many debtors escapedfrom their prisons and begged protection from the incensed multitude. The consuls found themselves powerless to restore order; and in themidst of the uproar horsemen came riding hotly through the gates, cryingout that a hostile army was near at hand, marching to besiege the city. 

Here was a splendid opportunity for the Plebeians. When called upon toenroll their names and take arms for the city's defence, they refused. The Patricians, they said, might fight their own battles. As for them, they had rather die together at home than perish separate upon thebattle-field. 

This refusal left the Patricians in a quandary. With riot in the streetsand war beyond the walls they were at the mercy of the commons. Theywere forced to promise a mitigation of the laws, declaring that no oneshould henceforth seize the goods of a soldier while he was in camp, orhinder a citizen from enlisting by keeping him in prison. This promisesatisfied the people. The debtors' prisons were emptied, and their latetenants crowded with enthusiasm into the ranks. Through the gates thearmy marched, met the foe, and drove him in defeat from the soil of theRoman state. 

Victory gained, the Plebeians looked for laws to sustain the promisesunder which they had fought. They looked in vain; the senate took noaction for their redress. But they had learned their power, and were notagain to be enslaved. Their action was deliberate but decided. Takingmeasures to protect their homes on the Aventine Hill, they left the citythe next year in a body, and sought a hill beyond the Anio, about threemiles beyond the walls of Rome. Here they encamped, builtfortifications, and sent word to their lordly rulers that they were donewith empty promises, and would fight no more for the state until thestate kept its faith. All the good of their fighting came to thePatricians, they said, and these might now defend themselves and theirwealth. 

The senate was thrown into a panic by this decided action. When thehostile cities without should learn of it, they might send armies inhaste to undefended Rome. The people left in the city feared thePatricians, and the Patricians feared them. All was doubt and anxiety. At length the senate, driven to desperation, sent an embassy to therebels to treat for peace, being in deadly fear that some enemy mightassail and capture the city in the absence of the bulk of itsinhabitants. 

The messenger sent, Menenius Agrippa Lanatus, was a man famed foreloquence, and a popular favorite. In his address to the people in theircamp he repeated to them the following significant fable:

"At a time when all the parts of the body did not agree together, asthey do now, but each had its own method and language, the other partsrebelled against the belly. They said that it lay quietly enjoyingitself in the centre, while they, by care, labor, and service, kept itin luxury. They therefore conspired that the hands should not conveyfood to the mouth, the mouth receive it, nor the teeth chew it. Theythus hoped to subdue the belly by famine; but they found that they andall the other parts of the body suffered as much. Then they saw that thebelly by no means rested in sloth; that it supplied instead of receivingnourishment, sending to all parts of the body the blood that gave lifeand strength to the whole system. "

It was the same, he said, with the body of the state. All must work inunity, if all would prosper. This homely argument hit the popular fancy. The people consented to treat for their return if their liberties couldbe properly secured. But they must now have deeds instead of words. Itwas not political power they sought, but protection, and protection theywould have. 

Their demands were as follows: All debts should be cancelled, and alldebtors held by their creditors should be released. And hereafter thePlebeians should have as their protectors two officials, who should havepower to veto all oppressive laws, while their persons should be held assacred and inviolable as those of the messengers of the gods. Theseofficials were to be called Tribunes, and to be the chief officers ofthe commons as the consuls were of the nobles. 

This proposition was accepted by the senate, and a treaty signed betweenthe contesting parties, as solemnly as if they had been two separatenations. It was an occasion as important to the liberties of Romans asthe treaty signed many centuries afterwards on the field of Runnymede, between King John and his barons, was to the liberties of Englishmen, and was held by the Romans in like high regard. The hill on which thetreaty had been made was ever after known as the Sacred Mount. Its topwas consecrated and an altar built upon it, on which sacrifices weremade to Jupiter, the god who strikes men with terror and then deliversthem from fear; for the people had fled thither in dread, and were nowto return home in safety. 

Thus ended the great revolt of the people, who had gained in theTribunes defenders of more power and importance than they or the senateknew. They were never again to suffer from the bitter oppression towhich they had been subjected in preceding years. As for Lanatus, towhose pleadings they had yielded, he died before the year ended, and wasfound to have not left enough to pay for his funeral. Therefore thePlebeians collected funds to give him a splendid burial; but the senatehaving decreed that the state should bear this expense, the money raisedby the grateful people was formed into a fund for the benefit of hischildren. 

_THE REVENGE OF CORIOLANUS. _

Caius Marcius, a noble Roman youth, descended from the worthy king AncusMarcius, fought valiantly when but seventeen years of age in the battleof Lake Regillus, and was there crowned with an oaken wreath, the Romanreward for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. This he showed with thegreatest joy to his mother, Volumnia, whom he loved exceedingly, itbeing his greatest pleasure to receive praise from her lips for hisexploits. He afterwards won many more crowns in battle, and became oneof the most famous of Roman soldiers. 

One of his memorable exploits took place during a war with theVolscians, in which the Romans attacked the city of Corioli. Thecitizens made a sally, and drove the Romans back to their camp. ButCaius, with a few followers, stopped them and turned the tide of battle, driving the Volscians back. As they fled into the city through the opengates, he cried, "Those gates are set open for us rather than for theVolscians. Why are we afraid to rush in?" And suiting his act to hiswords, the daring soldier pursued the enemy into the town. 

Here he found himself almost alone, for very few had followed him. Theenemy turned on the bold invaders, but Caius proved so strong of handand stout of heart that he drove them all before him, keeping a wayclear for the Romans, who soon thronged in through the open gate andtook the city. The army gave Caius the sole credit for the victory, saying that he alone had taken Corioli; and the general said, "Let himbe called after the name of the city. " He was, therefore, afterwardsknown by the name of Caius Marcius Coriolanus. 

Courage was not the only marked quality of Coriolanus. His pride wasequally great. He was a noble of the nobles, so haughty in demeanor andso disdainful of the commons that they grew to hate him bitterly. Atlength came a time of great scarcity of food. The people were on theverge of famine, to relieve which shiploads of corn were sent fromSicily to Rome. The senate resolved to distribute this corn among thesuffering people, but Coriolanus opposed this, saying, "If they wantcorn let them show their obedience to the Patricians, as their fathersdid, and give up their tribunes. If they do this we will let them havecorn, and take care of them. "

When the people heard of what the proud noble had said they broke intosuch fury that a mob gathered around the doors of the senate house, prepared to seize and tear him to pieces when he came out. They werechecked in this by the tribunes, who said, "Let us not have violence. Wewill accuse him of treason before the assembly, and you shall be hisjudges. "

The tribunes, therefore, as the law gave them the right, summonedCoriolanus to appear before the popular tribunal and answer to thecharges against him. But he, knowing how deeply he had offended them, and that they would show him no mercy, stayed not for the trial, butfled from Rome, exiled from his native land by his pride and disdain ofthe people. 

The exile made his way to the land of the Volscians, and seating himselfby the hearth-fire of Attius Tullius, their chief, waited there withcovered head till his late bitter foe should come in. How Attius wouldreceive him he knew not; but he was homeless, and had now only hisenemies to trust. But when the chieftain entered, and learned that theman who sat crouched beside his hearth, subject to his will, was thegreat warrior who by his own hands had taken a Volscian city, but wasnow banished and a fugitive, he was filled with compassion. He greetedhim kindly and offered him a home, saying to himself, "Caius, our worstfoe, is now our friend and a foe to Rome; we will make war against thatproud city, and by his aid will conquer it. "

But the Volscians were not eager for war. They were afraid of theRomans, who had so often defeated them, and Attius sought in vain tostir them to hostility. Failing to rouse them by eloquence, he practisedcraft. There was a great festival at Rome, to which had come the peopleof various cities, among them many of the Volscians. Attius now wentprivately to the Roman consuls and bade them beware of the Volscians, lest they should stir up a riot and make trouble in the city, hintingthat mischief was intended. In consequence of this warning proclamationwas made that every Volscian should leave Rome before the setting of thesun. 

This produced the effect which Attius had hoped. He met the Volscians ontheir way home, and found them fired with indignation against Rome. Hepretended similar indignation. "You have been made a show of before allthe nations, " he cried. "You and your wives and children have beenbasely insulted. They have made war on us while their guests; if you aremen you will make them rue this deed. "

His words inflamed his countrymen. The story of the insult spread widelythrough the country, all the tribes of the Volscians took up thequarrel, and a great army was raised and set in march towards Rome, withAttius and Coriolanus at its head. 

The Volscian force was greater than the Romans were prepared to meet, and the army marched victoriously onward, taking city after city, andfinally encamping within five miles of Rome. When the Volscians enteredRoman territory they laid waste, by order of Coriolanus, the lands ofthe commons, but spared those of the nobles, the exiled patriciandeeming the former his foes and the latter his friends. The approach ofthis powerful army threw the Romans into dismay. They had been assailedso suddenly that they had made no preparations for defence, and the cityseemed to lie at the mercy of its foes. The women ran to the temples topray for the favor of the gods. The people demanded that the senateshould send deputies to the invading army to treat for peace. Thesenate, apparently no less frightened than the people, obeyed, sendingfive leading Patricians to the Volscian camp. 

These deputies were haughtily received by Coriolanus, who offered themthe following severe terms: "We will give you no peace till you restoreto the Volscians all the land and cities which Rome has ever taken fromthem, and till you make them citizens of Rome, and give them all therights in your city which you have yourselves. "

These conditions the deputies had no power to accept, and they threw thesenate into dismay. The deputies were sent again, instructed to ask forgentler terms, but now, Coriolanus refused even to let them enter hiscamp. 

This harsh repulse plunged Rome into mortal terror. The senate, helplessto resist, now sent the priests of the gods and the augurs, all clothedin their sacred garments, and bearing the sacred emblems from thetemples. But even this solemn delegation Coriolanus refused to receive, and sent them back to Rome unheard. 

Where all this time was the Roman army, which always before and aftermade itself heard and felt? This we are not told. We are in the land oflegend, and cannot look for too much consistency. For once in itshistory Rome seems to have forgotten that its mission was not to plead, but to fight. Perhaps its armies had been beaten and demoralized inprevious battles. At any rate we can but tell the story as it is told tous. 

The help of delegates, priests, and augurs having proved unavailing, that of women was next sought. A noble lady, Valeria by name, who withother suppliants had sought the Temple of Jupiter, was inspired by asudden thought, which seemed sent by the god himself. Rising, andbidding the other noble ladies to accompany her, she proceeded to thehouse of Volumnia, the mother of Coriolanus, whom she found withVirgilia, his wife, and his little children. 

"We have come to ask you to join us, " she said, "in order that we women, without aid from man, may deliver our country, and win for ourselves aname more glorious even than that of the Sabine wives of old, whostopped the battle between their husbands and fathers. Come with us tothe camp of Caius, and let us pray him to show us mercy. "

"It is well thought of; we shall go with you, " said Volumnia, and, withVirgilia and her children, the noble matron prepared to seek the campand tent of her exiled son. 

It was a sad and solemn spectacle, as this train of noble ladies, cladin their habiliments of woe, and with bent heads and sorrowful faces, wound through the hostile camp, from which they were not excluded, likethe men. Even the Volscian soldiers watched them with pitying eyes, andspoke no word as they moved slowly past. On reaching the midst of thecamp, they saw Coriolanus on the general's seat, with the Volscianchiefs gathered around him. 

At first he wondered who these women could be. But when they came near, and he saw his mother at the head of the train, his deep love for herwelled up so strongly in his heart that he could not restrain himself, but sprang up and ran to meet and kiss her. The Roman matron stopped himwith a dignified gesture, saying, --

"Ere you kiss me, let me know whether I am speaking to an enemy or to myson; whether I stand here as your prisoner or your mother. "

He stood before her in silence, with bent head, and unable to speak. 

"Must it then be that if I had never borne a son, Rome would have neverseen the camp of an enemy?" said Volumnia, in sorrowful tones. "But I amtoo old to bear much longer your shame and my misery. Think not of me, but of your wife and children, whom you would doom to death or to lifein bondage. "

Then Virgilia and the children came up and kissed him, and all the nobleladies in the train burst into tears and bemoaned the peril of theircountry. Coriolanus still stood silent, his face working with contendingthoughts. At length he cried out, in heart-rending accents, "O mother, what have you done to me?"

Clasping her hand, he wrung it vehemently, saying, "Mother, the victoryis yours! A happy victory for you and Rome, but shame and ruin to yourson. "

Then he embraced her with yearning heart, and afterwards clasped hiswife and children to his breast, bidding them return with their tale ofconquest to Rome. As for himself, he said, only exile and shameremained. 

Before the women reached home the army of the Volscians was on itshomeward march. Coriolanus never led them against Rome again. He livedand died in exile, far from his wife and children. When very old, hesadly remarked, "That now in his old age he knew the full bitterness ofbanishment. "

The Romans, to honor Volumnia and those who had gone with her to theVolscian camp, built a temple to "Woman's Fortune" on the spot whereCoriolanus had yielded to his mother's entreaties; and the firstpriestess of this temple was Valeria, who had been inspired in thetemple of Jupiter with the thought that saved Rome. 

_CINCINNATUS AND THE ÆQUIANS. _

In the old days of Rome, not far from the time when Coriolanus yieldedup his revenge at his mother's entreaty, the Roman state possessed acitizen as patriotic as Coriolanus was proud, and who did as much goodas the other did evil to his native land. This citizen, Lucius Quinctiusby name, was usually called Cincinnatus, or the "crisp-haired, " from thefact that he let his hair grow long, and curled and crisped it socarefully as to gain as much fame for his hair as for his wisdom andvalor. 

Cincinnatus was the simplest and least ambitious of men. He carednothing for wealth, and had no craving for city life, but dwelt on hissmall farm beyond the Tiber, which he worked with his own hands, content, so his crops grew well, to let the lovers of power and wealthpursue their own devices within the city walls. But he was soon to bedrawn from the plough to the sword. 

While Cincinnatus was busy ploughing his land, Rome kept at its old workof ploughing the nations. War at this time broke out with the Æquians, aneighboring people; but for this war the Æquians were to blame. They hadplundered the lands of some of the allies of Rome, and when deputieswere sent to complain of this wrong, Gracchus, their chief, receivedthem with insulting mockery. 

He was sitting in his tent, which was pitched in the shade of a greatevergreen oak, when the deputies arrived. 

"I am busy with other matters, " he answered them; "I cannot hear you;you had better tell your message to the oak yonder. "

"Yes, " said one of the deputies, "let this sacred oak hear, and let allthe gods hear also, how treacherously you have broken the peace. Theyshall hear it now, and shall soon avenge it; for you have scorned alikethe laws of the gods and of men. "

The deputies returned to Rome, and reported how they had been insulted. The senate at once declared war, and an army was sent towards Algidus, where the enemy lay. But Gracchus, who was a skilled soldier, cunninglypretended to be afraid of the Romans, and retreated before them, drawingthem gradually into a narrow valley, on each side of which rose high, steep, and barren hills. 

When he had lured them fairly into this trap, he sent a force to closeup the entrance of the valley. The Romans suddenly found that they hadbeen entrapped into a _cul-de-sac_, with impassable hills in front andon each side, and a strong body of Æquians guarding the entrance to theravine. There was neither grass for the horses nor food for the men. Gracchus held not only the entrance, but the hill-tops all round, sothat escape in any direction was impossible. But before the road in therear was quite closed up five horsemen had managed to break out; andthese rode with all speed to Rome, where they told the senate of theimminent danger of the consul and his army. 

These tidings threw the senate into dismay. What was to be done? Theother consul was with his army in the country of the Sabines. He was atonce sent for, and hastened with all speed to Rome. Here a consultationtook place, which ended in the leading senators saying, "There is onlyone man who can deliver us. We must make Lucius Quinctius Master of thePeople. " Master of the People meant in Rome what we now mean byDictator, --that is, a man above the law, an autocrat supreme. Whatservice this unambitious tiller of the ground had previously done forRome to make him worthy of this distinction we are not told, but it isevident that he was looked upon as the man of highest wisdom andsoldiership in Rome. 

Caius Nautius, the consul, appointed Cincinnatus to this high office, ashe alone was privileged to do, and then hastened back to his army. Earlythe next morning deputies from the senate sought the farm of the newdictator, to apprise him of the honor conferred on him. Early as it was, Cincinnatus was already at work in his fields. He was without his toga, or cloak, and vigorously digging in the ground with his spade, neverdreaming that he, a simple husbandman, had been chosen to save a state. 

"We bring you a message from the senate, " said the deputies. "You mustput on your cloak to receive it with the fitting respect. "

"Has evil befallen the state?" asked the farmer, as he bade his wife tobring him his cloak. When he had put it on he returned to the deputies. 

"Hail to you, Lucius Quinctius!" they now said. "The senate has declaredyou Master of the People, and have sent us to call you to the city; forthe consul and the army in the country of the Æquians are in imminentdanger. "

Without further words, Cincinnatus accompanied them to the boat in whichthey had crossed the Tiber, and was rowed in it to the city. As he leftthe boat he was met by a deputation consisting of his three sons, hiskinsmen and friends, and many of the senators of Rome. They received himwith the highest honor, and led him in great state to his cityresidence, the twenty-four lictors walking before him, with their rodsand axes, while a great multitude of the people crowded round withshouts of welcome. The presence of the lictors signified that this plainfarmer had been invested with all the power of the former kings. 

The new dictator quickly proved himself worthy of the trust that hadbeen placed in him. He chose at once as his Master of the Horse LuciusTarquinius, a brave man, of noble descent, but so poor that he had beenforced to serve among the foot-soldiers instead of the horse. Then thetwo entered the Forum, where orders were given that all booths should beclosed and all lawsuits stopped. All men were forbidden to look aftertheir own affairs while a Roman army lay in peril of destruction. 

Orders were next given that every man old enough to go to battle shouldappear before sunset with his arms and with five days' food in theField of Mars, and should bring with him twelve stakes. These they wereto cut where they chose, without hinderance from any person. While thesoldiers occupied themselves in cutting these stakes, the women andolder men dressed their food. Such haste was made, under the energeticorders of the dictator, that an army was ready, equipped as commanded, in the Field of Mars before the sun had set. The march was at oncebegun, and was continued with such rapidity that by midnight thevicinity of Algidus was reached. On the enemy being perceived, a haltwas called. 

Cincinnatus now rode forward and inspected the camp of the enemy, so faras it could be seen by night. He then ordered the soldiers to throw downtheir baggage, and to keep only their arms and stakes. Marchingstealthily forward, they now extended their lines until they hadcompletely surrounded the hostile camp. Then, upon a given signal, asimultaneous shout was raised, and each soldier began to dig a ditchwhere he stood and to plant his stakes in the ground. 

The shout rang like a thunder-clap through the camp of the Æquians, waking them suddenly and filling them with dismay. It also reached theears of the Romans who lay in the valley, and inspired them with hope, for they recognized the Roman war-cry. They raised their ownbattle-shout in response, and, seizing their arms, sallied out and madea fierce attack upon the foe, fighting so desperately that the Æquianswere prevented from interrupting the work of the outer army. All theremainder of the night the battle went on, and when day broke theÆquians found that a ditch and a palisade of stakes had been made aroundtheir entire camp. 

This work accomplished, Cincinnatus ordered his men to attack the foe, and thus aid their entrapped countrymen. The Æquians, finding themselvesbetween two armies, and as closely walled in as the Romans in the valleyhad before been, fell into a panic of hopelessness, threw down theirarms, and begged their foes for mercy. Cincinnatus now signalled for thefighting to cease, and, meeting those who came to ask on what terms hewould spare their lives, said, --

"Give me Gracchus and your other chiefs bound. As for you, you can haveyour lives on one condition. I will set two spears upright in theground, and put a third spear across, and every man of you, giving upyour arms and your cloaks, shall pass under this yoke, and may then goaway free. "

To go under the yoke was accounted the greatest dishonor to a soldier. But the Æquians had no alternative and were obliged to submit. Theydelivered up to the Romans their king and their chiefs, left their campwith all its spoil to the foe, and passed without cloaks or arms underthe crossed spears, their heads bowed with shame. They then went home, leaving their chiefs as Roman prisoners. Thus was Gracchus punished forhis pride. 

In less than a day's time Cincinnatus had saved a Roman army andhumiliated the Æquian foe. As for the battle-spoils, he distributed themamong his own men, giving none to the consul's army, and degraded theconsul, making him his under-officer. He then marched the two armiesback to Rome, which he reached that same evening, and where he wasreceived with as much astonishment as joy. The rescued army were toofull of thankfulness at their escape to feel chagrin at their loss ofspoil, and voted to give Cincinnatus a golden crown, calling him theirprotector and father. 

The senate decreed that Cincinnatus should enter the city in triumph. Herode in his chariot through the gates, Gracchus and the chiefs of theÆquians being led in fetters before him. In front of all the standardswere borne, while in the rear marched the soldiers, laden with theirspoil. At the door of every house tables were set, with meat and drinkfor the soldiers, while the people, singing and rejoicing, danced withjoy as they followed the conqueror's chariot, and all Rome was given upto feasting and merry-making. 

As for Cincinnatus, he laid down his power and returned to his farm, glad to have rescued a Roman army, but caring nothing for the pomp andauthority he might have gained. And for all we know, he lived and diedthereafter a simple tiller of the ground. 

_THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA. _

In the year 504 B. C. A citizen of Regillum, of much wealth andimportance, finding himself at odds with his fellow-citizens, left thatcity and proceeded to Rome, with a long train of followers, much as theelder Tarquin had come from Tarquinii. His name was Atta Clausus, but inRome he became known as Appius Claudius. He was received as a patrician, was given ample lands, and he and his descendants in later years becameamong the chief of those who hated and oppressed the plebeians. 

[Illustration: THE SACRIFICE OF VIRGINIA. ]

About half a century after this date, one of these descendants, alsonamed Appius Claudius, was a principal actor in one of the most dramaticevents of ancient Rome. The trouble which had long existed between thepatricians and the plebeians now grew so pronounced, and the demand fora reform in the laws so great, that in the year 451 B. C. A commissionwas sent to the city of Athens, to report on the system of governmentthey found there and elsewhere in Greece. After this commission hadreturned and given its report, a body of ten patricians was appointed, under the title of Decemvirs (or ten men), to prepare a new code of lawsfor Rome. They were chosen for one year, and took the place of theconsuls, tribunes, and all the chief officials of Rome. 

At the head of this body was Appius Claudius. The laws of Rome hadpreviously been only partly written, the remainder being held in memoryor transmitted as traditions. A complete code of written laws wasdesired, and to this work the decemvirs set themselves diligently. Aftera few months they prepared a code of laws, which was accepted by noblesand people alike as fair and satisfactory, and it was ordered that theselaws should be engraved upon ten tables of brass and hung up in thecomitium, or place of assembly of the people, where all might read themand learn under what laws they lived. It is probable that the plebeiandemand for reform was so great that the decemvirs did not dare todisregard it. 

At the end of the year of office of these officials it was felt thatthey had done so well that it was thought wise to continue them in powerfor another year. But when the time for election came round, AppiusClaudius managed to have his nine associates defeated, he alone beingre-elected. The other nine chosen were men whom he felt sure he couldcontrol. And now, having a year's rule assured him, he threw off thecloak of moderation he had worn, and began a career of oppression of theplebeians, aided by his subservient associates. The first step taken wasto add two new laws to the code, which became known, therefore, as the"Twelve Tables. " These new laws proved so distasteful to the people thatthey almost broke into open rebellion. It was evident that the haughtydecemvirs were seeking to increase the power of their class. 

The decemvirs did not confine themselves to passing oppressive laws. They began a career of outrage and oppression that filled Rome with woe. The youthful patricians followed their lead, and insult and murderbecame common incidents in Rome. When the second year of the decemvirateexpired, Appius and his colleagues, knowing that they could not beelected again, showed no intention of yielding up their authority. Theywere supported by the senate and the patricians, and had gained suchpower that they defied the plebeians. Those of the people who wereactive in opposition were quietly disposed of, and so intolerable becamethe tyranny that numbers of the plebeian party fled from Rome. 

While this was going on war broke out with the Sabines and the Æquians. Of the armies sent against these nations, one was commanded by LuciusSicinius Dentatus, among the bravest of the Romans, and who had foughtin one hundred and twenty battles and was covered with the scars of oldwounds. On his way to his post this veteran was murdered by bravos sentby Appius Claudius. Decemvirs were now appointed to command the armies, Appius and one of his colleagues remaining in Rome to look after thesafety of the city. 

The story goes that both armies were beaten by their foes, and forced toretreat within Roman territory. While they lay encamped, not many milesfrom Rome, an event occurred in the city which gave them new work to do, and proved that the worst enemies of Rome were not without, but within, her walls. 

In the army sent against the Æquians was a centurion named LuciusVirginius, who had a beautiful daughter named Virginia, whom he hadbetrothed to Lucius Icilius, recently one of the tribunes of Rome. Butthe tyranny of the decemvirs was directed against the wives anddaughters as well as the men of the plebeians, as was now to bestrikingly shown. 

One day, as the beautiful maiden was on her way, attended by her nurse, to school in the Forum (around which the schools were placed), she wasseen by Appius Claudius, who was so struck by her beauty that hedetermined to gain possession of her, and sought to win her by insidiouswords. The innocent girl repelled his advances, but this only increasedhis desire to possess her, and he determined, as she was not to be hadby fair means, to have her by foul. He therefore laid a wicked plot forher capture. 

Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, instigated by him, seized the girlas she entered the Forum, claiming that she was his slave. The nursescreamed for help, and a crowd quickly gathered. Many of these well knewthe maiden, her father, and her betrothed, and vowed to protect her fromwrong. But the villain declared that he meant no harm, and that he onlyclaimed his own, and was quite willing to submit his claim to thedecision of the law. 

Followed by the crowd, he led the weeping maiden to where AppiusClaudius occupied the judgment-seat, and demanded justice at his hands. He declared that the wife of Virginius, being childless, had got thischild from its mother and presented it to Virginius as her own, and saidthat the real mother had been his slave, and that, therefore, thedaughter was his slave also. This he would prove to Virginius on hisreturn to Rome. Meanwhile it was but just that the master should keeppossession of his slave. 

This specious appeal was earnestly combated by the friends of themaiden, many of whom were present in the throng. Virginius, they said, was absent from Rome in the service of the commonwealth. To take suchaction in his absence was unjust. They would send him word at once, andin two days he would be in the city. 

"Let the case stand until he can appear, " they demanded. "The lawexpressly declares that in cases like this every one shall be consideredfree till proved a slave. The maiden, therefore, should legally be leftwith her friends till the day of trial. Put not her fair fame in perilby giving up a free-born maiden into the hands of a man whom she knowsnot. "

To this reasonable appeal Appius, with a show of judicial moderation, replied, --

"Truly, I know the law you speak of, and hold it just and good, for itwas enacted by myself. But this maiden cannot in any case be free; shebelongs either to her father or to her master. And as her father is nothere, who but her master can have any claim to her? I decide, therefore, that M. Claudius shall keep her till Virginius comes, and shall requirehim to give sureties to bring her before my judgment-seat when the daycomes for hearing the case between them. "

This illegal decision was far from satisfying the multitude. Thedecemvirs and their adherents had gained an unholy reputation fordishonorable treatment of the wives and daughters of the people, and itwas not safe to trust a maiden in their hands. Word had been hastilysent to Numitorius, the uncle of Virginia, and Icilius, her betrothed, and they now came up in great haste, and protested so vigorously againstthe sentence, that the surrounding people became roused to fury. Appius, seeing the temper of the throng, and fearing a riotous demonstration, felt forced to change his decision. He said, therefore, that, in view ofthe rights of fathers over their children, he would let the case resttill the next day. 

"If, then, " he said, with a show of stern dignity, "Virginius does notappear, I plainly tell Icilius and his fellows that I will support thelaws which I have made. Violence shall not prevail over justice at thistribunal. "

Obliged to be content with this, the friends of Virginia conducted herhome, and Icilius sent messengers in all haste to the camp, to bidVirginius come without an hour's delay to Rome. Surety was given thatthe maiden should appear before Appius the next day. 

It was fortunate that the army in which Virginius was a centurion hadbeen obliged to retreat, and then lay not many miles from Rome. Themessengers sent reached the camp that same evening, and told Virginiusof the peril of his daughter. Appius had also sent messengers to hiscolleagues in command of the army, secretly instructing them not to letVirginius leave the camp on any pretence. But the messengers of rightoutstripped those of wrong, and when word came from the decemvirs incommand to restrain Virginius he had already been given leave ofabsence, and was speeding on the road to Rome, spurred by love andindignation. 

Morning came, and Appius resumed his judgment-seat, under the delusionthat his vile scheme was safe. To his surprise and dismay, he sawVirginius, whom he supposed detained in camp, dressed in mean attire, like a suppliant, and leading his daughter into the Forum. With him camea body of Roman matrons and a great troop of friends, for the affair hadroused the people almost to the point of revolt. 

"This is not my cause only, but the cause of all, " said Virginius, inmoving accents, to the people. "If my daughter shall be robbed from me, what father and mother among you all is safe?"

Icilius earnestly seconded this appeal, and the mothers who stood bywept with pity, their tears moving the people even more than the wordsof the father and lover. 

But Appius was not to be moved by tears or appeals. Bent on gaining hisunholy ends, he did not even give Virginius time to address thetribunal, but before Claudius had done speaking he hastened to givesentence. The maiden, he said, should be considered a slave until provedto be free-born. In the mean time she should remain in the custody ofher master Claudius. 

This monstrous decision, a perversion of all law, natural and civil, filled the people with astonishment. Could the maker of the laws of Romethus himself set them at defiance? They stood as if stunned, untilClaudius approached to lay hands on the maiden, when the women and herfriends gathered around her and kept him off, while Virginius broke outin passionate threats that he would not tamely submit to so great awrong. 

Appius had prepared for this. He had brought with him a body of armedpatricians, and, supported by them, he bade his lictors to drive backthe crowd. Before their threatening axes the unarmed people fell back, and the weeping maiden was left standing alone. Virginius looked on indespair. Was he to be robbed of his daughter in the face of Rome, and indefiance of all justice and honor? There was one way still to save her, and only one. 

With an aspect of humility he asked Appius to let him speak one word tothe nurse in the maiden's hearing, that he might learn whether she werereally his child or not. "If I am not indeed her father, I shall bearher loss the lighter, " he said. 

Appius, with a show of moderation, consented, and the distracted fatherdrew the nurse and his daughter aside to a spot where stood somebutchers' booths, for the Forum of Rome was then a place of trade aswell as of justice. Here he snatched a knife from a butcher, and, holding the poor girl in his arm, he cried, "This is the only way, mychild, to keep thee free, " and plunged the weapon to her heart. 

Then, turning to Appius, he cried, in threatening accents, "On you andon your head be the curse of this blood!"

"Seize the madman!" yelled Appius. 

But, brandishing the bloody knife, Virginius broke through themultitude, which readily made way for his passage, and flew to the citygates, where, seizing a horse, he rode with wild haste to the camp ofTusculum. 

Meanwhile Icilius and Numitorius held up the maiden's body, and bade thepeople see the bloody result of the decemvir's unholy purpose. A tumultinstantly arose, the people rushing in such fury upon the tribunal thatthe lictors and armed patricians were driven back, and Appius, strickenwith fear, covered his face with his robe and fled into a neighboringhouse. 

Never had Rome been so stirred to fury. The colleague of Appius rushedwith his followers to the Forum, but the people were too strong for allthe force he could gather. The senate met, but could do nothing in theexcited state of public feeling. An attempt to support the decemvirs nowmight cause the commons once more to secede to the Sacred Hill. 

While this was going on in the city, Virginius, followed by manycitizens, had reached the camp. Here the encrimsoned knife he held, theblood on his face and body, and the many unarmed citizens who followedhim, brought the soldiers crowding round to learn what all this meant. 

The tale was told in moving accents. On hearing it the whole army burstinto a storm of indignation. Heedless of the orders of their generals, they rushed excitedly to arms, pulled up their standards, and putthemselves in hasty march for Rome. The only leader they recognized wasVirginius, who, knife in hand, led the way in the van. 

Reaching the city, the soldiers called on the commons to assert theirliberties and elect new tribunes, the decemvirs having deprived them ofthese officials. They then marched to the Aventine Hill, where theyselected ten military tribunes. The senate sent to them to know whatthey wanted, but they replied that they had no answer to give except totheir own friends. 

The other army had also heard of the outrage, and soon appeared at theAventine, led by Icilius and Numitorius, who had hastened with thedreadful story to its camp. It, too, elected ten tribunes, and waited tohear what the senate had to propose. They waited in vain. No word cameto them. The senate, distracted by the sudden occurrence, sought totemporize, but the people were in too deadly earnest to be thus dealtwith. In the end the armies left the Aventine, marched through the city, and made their way to the Sacred Hill, where the seceding commoners hadestablished themselves on a famous occasion long before. Men, women, andchildren followed them in multitudes. Once more the city was deserted bythe plebeians, and the patricians were left to keep Rome together asthey could. 

This brought the senate to terms. The decemvirs agreed to resign. Deputies were sent to ask what the people demanded. They replied thatthey wanted their tribunes and the right of appeal restored, fullindemnity for all the leaders in the secession, and the punishment oftheir oppressors. 

"These decemvirs, " said Icilius, "are public enemies, and we will havethem die the death of such. Give them up to us, that they may be burntwith fire, as they have richly deserved. "

This blood-thirsty desire, however, was not insisted on. All their otherrequests were granted, and the people returned to Rome. The decemvirshad resigned. Ten tribunes were chosen, among them Virginius andIcilius. The people of Rome had regained the liberty of which they hadbeen robbed by their late oppressors. 

But though the decemvirs had been spared from death by fire, they werenot forgiven. Virginius, as a tribune, impeached Appius for having givena decision in defiance of the law. The proud patrician appeared in theForum surrounded by a body of young nobles, but he gained nothing bythis bravado. He refused to go before the judge, appealed to the people, and demanded to be released on bail. This Virginius refused. He couldnot be trusted at liberty. He was therefore thrown into prison, to awaitthe judgment of the people. 

This judgment he did not live to hear. Whether he killed himself inprison, or was killed by order of his accusers, we do not know. We onlyknow that he died. His colleague, who had come to his aid on that fatalday, was also thrown into prison, on the charge of having wantonlyscourged an old and distinguished soldier. He also died there. The otherdecemvirs, with M. Claudius, who had claimed Virginia as his slave, wereallowed to give bail, and all fled from Rome. The property of all ofthem was confiscated and sold. 

Rome had experienced enough of decemvirate rule. The tribunes of thepeople were restored, and thereafter they were both freely chosen by thepeople, which had not been the case before. 

And thus it was that Virginia was revenged and justice once more reignedin Rome. 

_CAMILLUS AT THE SIEGE OF VEII. _

We have now to tell the story of another dictator of Rome. LikeCincinnatus, Camillus is largely a creature of legend, but he plays anactive part in old Roman annals, and the tale of his doings is wellworth repeating. 

Rome was at war with the city of Veii, a large and strong city beyondthe Tiber, and not many miles away. In the year of Rome 350 (or 403B. C. ) the siege of Veii began, and was continued for seven years. We aretold that the Romans surrounded the city, five miles in circumference, with a double wall, but it could not have been complete, or theVeientians could not have held out against starvation so long. For theend of the siege and the taking of the city we must revert to thelegendary tale. 

For seven years and more, so the legend says, the Romans had beenbesieging Veii. During the last year of the siege, in late summer, thesprings and rivers all ran low; but of a sudden the waters of the Lakeof Alba began to rise, and the flood continued until the banks wereoverflowed and the fields and houses by its side were drowned. Stillhigher and higher the waters swelled till they reached the tops of thehills which rose like a wall around the lake. In the end theyoverflowed these hills at their lowest points, and poured in a mightytorrent into the plain beyond. 

The prayers and sacrifices of the Romans had failed to check the flood, which threatened their city and fields, and despairing of any redressfrom their own gods they sent to Delphi, in Greece, and applied there tothe famous oracle of Apollo. While the messengers were on their way, itchanced that a Roman centurion talked with an old Veientian on the wallswhom he had known in times of peace, and knew to be skilled in thesecrets of Fate. The Roman condoled with his friend, and hoped that noharm would come to him in the fall of Veii, sure to happen soon. The oldman laughed in reply, and said, --

"You think, then, to take Veii. You shall not take it till the waters ofthe Lake of Alba are all spent, and flow out into the sea no more. "

This remark troubled the Roman, who knew the prophetic foresight of hisfriend. The next day he talked with him again, and finally enticed himto leave the city, saying that he wished to meet him at a certain secretplace and consult with him on a matter of his own. But on getting him inthis way out of the city, he seized and carried him off to the camp, where he brought him before the generals. These, learning what the oldman had said, sent him to the senate at Rome. 

The prisoner here spoke freely. "If the lake overflow, " he said, "andits waters run out into the sea, woe unto Rome; but if it be drawn off, and the waters reach the sea no longer, then it is woe unto Veii. "

This he gave as the decree of the Fates; but the senate would not accepthis words, and preferred to wait until the messengers should return fromDelphi with the reply of the oracle. 

When they did come, they confirmed what the old prophet had said. "Seethat the waters be not confined within the basin of the lake, " was themessage of Apollo's priestess: "see that they take not their own courseand run into the sea. Thou shalt take the water out of the lake, andthou shalt turn it to the watering of the fields, and thou shalt makecourses for it till it be spent and come to nothing. "

What all this could possibly have to do with the siege of Veii theoracle did not say. But the people of the past were not given to asksuch inconvenient questions. The oracle was supposed to know better thanthey, so workmen were sent with orders to bore through the sides of thehills and make a passage for the water. This tunnel was made, and thewaters of the lake were drawn off, and divided into many courses, beinggiven the duty of watering the fields of the Romans. In this way thewater of the lake was all used up, and no drop of it flowed to the sea. Then the Romans knew that it was the will of the gods that Veii shouldbe theirs. 

Despite all this, the army of Rome must have met with seriousdifficulties and dangers at Veii, for the senate chose a dictator toconduct the war. This was their ablest and most famous man, MarcusFurius Camillus, a leader among the aristocrats, and a statesman ofdistinguished ability. 

Under the command of Camillus the army hotly pressed the siege. Sostraitened became the Veientians that they sent envoys to Rome to begfor peace. The senate refused. In reply, one of the chief men of theembassy, who was a skilled prophet, rebuked the Romans for theirarrogance, and predicted coming retribution. 

"You heed neither the wrath of the gods nor the vengeance of men, " hesaid. "Yet the gods shall requite you for your pride; as you destroy ourcountry, so shall you shortly after lose your own. "

This prediction was verified before many years in the invasion of theGauls and the destruction of Rome, --a tale which we have next to tell. 

Camillus, finding that Veii was not to be taken by assault over itswalls, began to approach it from below. Men were set to dig anunderground tunnel, which should pass beneath the walls, and come to thesurface again in the Temple of Juno, which stood in the citadel of Veii. Night and day they worked, and the tunnel was in course of timecompleted, though the ground was not opened at its inner extremity. 

Then many Romans came to the camp through desire to have a share in thespoil of Veii. A tenth part of this spoil was vowed by Camillus toApollo, in reward for his oracle; and the dictator also prayed to Juno, the goddess of Veii, begging her to desert this city and follow theRomans home, where a temple worthy of her dignity should be built. 

All being ready, a fierce assault was made on the city from every side. The defenders ran to the walls to repel their foes, and the fight wentvigorously on. While it continued the king of Veii repaired to theTemple of Juno, where he offered a sacrifice for the deliverance of thecity. The prophet who stood by, on seeing the sacrifice, said, "This isan accepted offering. There is victory for him who offers the entrailsof this victim upon the altar. "

The Romans who were in the secret passage below heard these words. Instantly the earth was heaved up above them, and they sprang, arms inhand, from the tunnel. The entrails were snatched from the hands ofthose who were sacrificing, and Camillus, the Roman dictator, not theVeientian king, offered them upon the altar. While he did so hisfollowers rushed from the citadel into the streets, flung open the citygates, and let in their comrades. Thus both from within and without thearmy broke into the town, and Veii was taken and sacked. 

From the height of the citadel Camillus looked down upon the havoc inthe city streets, and said in pride of heart, "What man's fortune wasever so great as mine?" But instantly the thought came to him how littlea thing can bring the highest fortune down to the lowest, and he prayedthat if some evil should befall him or his country it might be light. 

As he prayed he veiled his head, according to the Roman custom, andturned toward the right. In doing so his foot slipped, and he fell uponhis back on the ground. "The gods have heard my prayer, " he said. "Forthe great fortune of my victory over Veii they have sent me only thislittle evil. "

He then bade some young men, chosen from the whole army, to washthemselves in pure water, and clothe themselves in white, so that therewould be about them no stain or sign of blood. This done, they enteredthe Temple of Juno, bowing low, and taking care not to touch the statueof the goddess, which only the priest could touch. They asked thegoddess whether it was her pleasure to go with them to Rome. 

Then a wonder happened; from the mouth of the image came the words "Iwill go. " And when they now touched it, it moved of its own accord. Itwas carried to Rome, where a temple was built and consecrated to Juno onthe Aventine Hill. 

On his return to Rome Camillus entered the city in triumph, and rode tothe Capitol in a chariot drawn by four white horses, like the horses ofJupiter or those of the sun. Such was his ostentation that wise menshook their heads. "Marcus Camillus makes himself equal to the blessedgods, " they said. "See if vengeance come not on him, and he be not madelower than other men. "

There is one further legend about Camillus. After the fall of Veii hebesieged Falerii. During this siege a school-master, who had charge ofthe sons of the principal citizens, while walking with his boys outsidethe walls, played the traitor and led them into the Roman camp. 

But the villain received an unexpected reward. Camillus, justlyindignant at the act, put thongs in the boys' hands and bade them flogtheir master back into the town, saying that the Romans did not war onchildren. On this the people of Falerii, overcome by his magnanimity, surrendered themselves, their city, and their country into the hands ofthis generous foe, assured of just treatment from so noble a man. 

But trouble came upon Camillus, as the wise men had predicted. He was anenemy of the commons and was to feel their power. It was claimed that hehad kept for himself part of the plunder of Veii, and on this charge hewas banished from Rome. But the time was near at hand when his foeswould have to pray for his return. The next year the Gauls were to come, and Camillus was to be revenged upon his ungrateful country. This storywe have next to tell. 

_THE GAULS AT ROME. _

We have related in the preceding tale how a Veientian prophet predictedthe ruin of Rome, in retribution for the cruelty of the Romans to thepeople of Veii. It is the story of this disaster which we have now totell. While the Romans were assailing Veii and making other conquestsamong the neighboring cities, a new people had come into Central Italy, a fair-faced, light-haired, great-bodied tribe of barbarians, fierce inaspect, warlike in character, the first contingent of that greatinvasion from the north which, centuries afterwards, was to overthrowthe empire of Rome. 

These were the Gauls, barbarian tribes from the region now known asFrance, who had long before crossed the Alps and made themselves lordsof much of Northern Italy. Just when this took place we do not know, butabout the time with which we are now concerned they pushed farthersouth, overthrew the Etruscans, and in the year 389 B. C. Crossed theApennines and penetrated into Central Italy. 

And now the proud city of Rome was to come face to face with an enemymore powerful and courageous than any it had hitherto known. In the yearnamed the Gauls besieged the city of Clusium, in Etruria, the city ofLars Porsenna, who in former years had aided Tarquin against Rome. TheRoman senate, alarmed at their approach, sent three deputies to observethese barbarian bands. What follows is the story as told in Romanannals. It cannot be accepted as the exact truth, though no onequestions the destruction of Rome by the Gauls. 

The story goes, then, that the deputies sent to the barbarians, andasked by what right they sought to take a part of the territory ofClusium, a city in alliance with Rome. Brennus, the leader of the Gauls, who knew little and cared less about Rome, replied, with insolent pride, that all things belonged to the brave, and that their right lay in theirswords. 

Soon after, in a sortie that was made from the city, one of the Romandeputies joined the soldiers, and killed a Gaulish champion of greatsize and stature. On this being reported to Brennus he sent messengersto Rome, demanding that the man who had slain one of his chiefs, when nowar existed between the Gauls and Romans, should be delivered into hishands for punishment. The senate voted to do so, as the demand seemedreasonable; but an appeal was made to the people, and they declared thatthe culprit should not be given up. On this answer being taken toBrennus, he at once ordered that the siege of Clusium should beabandoned, and marched with his whole army upon Rome. 

A Roman army, forty thousand strong, was hastily raised, and crossed theTiber, marching towards Veii, where they expected to meet the advancingenemy. But they reckoned wrongly: the Gauls came down the left bank ofthe river, plundering and burning as they marched. This threw the Romansinto the greatest alarm. For many miles above Rome the Tiber could notbe forded, there were no bridges, and boats could not be had to conveyso large an army. The Romans were forced to march back with all speed tothe city, cross the river there, and hasten to meet their foes beforethey got too near at hand. But when they came within sight of the Gaulsthe latter were already within twelve miles of Rome. 

The Roman army was drawn up behind the Alia, a little stream whose deepbed formed a line of defence. But the Gauls made their attack upon theweakest section of the Roman army, hewing them down with their greatbroadswords, and assailing their ears with frightful yells. The Romanright wing, formed of new recruits, gave way before this vigorouscharge, and in its flight threw the regular legions of the left winginto disorder. The Gauls pursued so fiercely that in a short time thewhole army was in total rout, and flying as Roman army had never fledbefore. 

Many plunged into the river, in hope of escaping by swimming across it. But of these the Gauls slew multitudes on the banks, and killed most ofthose in the stream with their javelins. Others took refuge in a densewood near the road, where they lay hidden till nightfall. The remainderfled back to the city, where they brought the frightful tidings of theutter ruin of the Roman army. 

The news threw Rome into a panic. Of those who escaped from the battle, the majority had crossed the river and made their way to Veii. No otherarmy could be raised. Most of the other inhabitants left the city, asthe people of Athens had done when the army of Xerxes approached. It wasresolved to abandon the city to the barbarians, but to maintain thecitadel, the home of the gods of Rome. The holy articles in the templeswere buried or removed, the Vestal Virgins sent away, and the flower ofthe patricians took refuge in the Capitol, determined to defend to thelast that abiding-place of the guardian gods of Rome. 

But there were aged members of the senate, old patricians who had filledthe highest offices in the state, and venerable ministers of the gods, who felt that they had a different duty to perform. They could not servetheir country by their deeds; they might by their death. They devotedthemselves and the army of the Gauls, in solemn invocations, to thespirits of the dead and to the earth, the common grave of man. Then, attiring themselves in their richest robes of office, each took his seaton his ivory chair of magistracy in the gate-way of his house. 

Meanwhile the Gauls had delayed for a day their attack on the city, fearing that the silence portended some snare. When they did enter, thepeople had escaped with such valuables as they could carry. The Capitolwas provisioned and garrisoned, and the aged senators awaited death insolemn calm. 

On seeing these venerable men, sitting in motionless silence amid theconfusion of the sack of the city, the Gauls viewed them with awe, regarding them at first as more than human. One of the soldiersapproached M. Papirius, and began reverently to stroke his long whitebeard. Papirius was a minister of the gods, and looked on this touch ofa barbarian hand as profanation. With an impulse of anger he struck theGaul on the head with his ivory sceptre. Instantly the barbarian, breaking into rage, cut him down with his sword. This put an end to thefeeling of awe. All the old men were attacked and slain, their vow beingthus fulfilled. 

Rome, except its Capitol, was now in the hands of the Gauls. The sackand ruin of the city went mercilessly on. But the Capitol defied theirefforts. It stood on a hill which, except at a single point, presentedprecipitous sides. The Gauls tried to storm it by this single approach, but were driven back with loss. They then blockaded the hill, and spenttheir time in devastating the city and neighboring country. 

While this was going on the fugitives from Rome had gathered at Veii, where they daily became more reorganized. And now they turned in theirdistress to a man whom they had injured in their prosperity. Camillus, the conqueror of Veii, had been exiled from Rome on a charge of havingbeen dishonest in distributing the spoils of the conquered city. He wasnow living at Ardea, whither messengers were sent, begging him to cometo the aid of Rome. He sent word back that he had been condemned for anoffence of which he was not guilty, and would not return unlessrequested to do so by the senate. 

But the senate was shut up in the Capitol. How could it be reached? Inthis dilemma a young man, Pontius Cominius, volunteered for theadventure. He swam the Tiber at night, climbed the hill by the aid ofshrubs and projecting stones, obtained for Camillus the appointment asdictator, and returned by the same route. 

The feat of Cominius, whatever its real purpose, came near being a fatalone to Rome. He had left his marks on the cliff. Here the soil had beentrodden away and stones loosened; there bushes had been broken or tornfrom the soil. The sharp eyes of the Gauls saw, in the morning light, these proofs that some one had climbed or descended the hill. The cliff, then, could be climbed. Some Roman had climbed it; why not they? Thespot, supposed to be inaccessible, was not guarded. There was no wall atits top. Here was an open route to that stubborn citadel. They resolvedto attempt it as soon as night should fall. 

It was midnight when the Gauls began to make their way slowly and withdifficulty up the steep cliff. The moon may have aided them with itsrays, but, if so, it revealed them to no sentinel above. The verywatch-dogs failed to scent and signal their approach. They reached thesummit, and, to their gratification, no alarm had been given. The Romansslept on. 

The fate of Rome in that hour hung in the balance. Had the citadel beentaken and its defenders slain, Rome might never have recovered from theblow. The whole course of history might have been changed. It was themerest chance that saved the city from this impending disaster. 

It chanced that on this part of the hill stood the temple of theguardian gods of Rome, --Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, --and in this templewere kept a number of geese, sacred to Juno. Though food was notabundant, the garrison had spared these sacred geese. They were now tobe amply repaid, for the geese alone heard the noise of the ascendingGauls, and in alarm began a loud screaming and flapping of wings. 

The noise aroused Marcus Manlius, who slept near. Hastily seizing hissword and shield, he called to his comrades and ran to the edge of thecliff. He reached there just in time to see the head and shoulders of aburly Gaul, who had nearly attained the summit. Dashing the rim of hisshield into the face of the barbarian, Manlius tumbled him down therock, and with him those who followed in his track. The others, dismayed, dropped their arms to cling more closely to the rocks. Unableto ascend or descend, they were easily slaughtered by the guards whofollowed Manlius. The Capitol was saved. As for the captain of thewatch, from whose neglect of duty this peril had come, he was punishedthe next morning by being hurled down the cliff upon the slaughteredGauls. 

Manlius was rewarded, says the story, by each man giving him from hisscanty store a day's allowance of food, --namely, half a pound of cornand five ounces in weight of wine. As for the real defenders of Rome, the geese of the Capitol, they were ever after held in the highest honorand veneration. 

As the Capitol could not be taken by assault or surprise, thereremained only the slow process of siege. For six or eight months theGauls blockaded the hill. So says the story, but it was probably not solong. However, in the end the Romans were brought to the point offamine, and offered to ransom their city by paying a large sum of gold. Brennus, the Gaulish king, was ready to accept the offer. His men weresuffering from the Roman fever; food had grown scarce; he agreed, ifpaid a thousand pounds' weight of gold, to withdraw his army from Rome. 

Much gold had been brought by the fugitive patricians into the Capitol. From this the delegates brought down and placed in the scales asufficient quantity. But while they found the gold, the Gauls found theweights, and it was soon discovered that the wily barbarians werecheating. Their weights were too heavy. Complaint of this fraud was madeby the Roman tribune of the soldiers. In reply Brennus drew his heavybroadsword and threw it into the scale with the weights. 

"What does this mean?" asked the tribune. 

"It means, " answered the barbarian, haughtily, "woe to the vanquished!""_Væ victis esse!_"

While this was going on, says the legend, Camillus, the dictator, wasmarching to Rome with the legions he had organized at Veii. He appearedat the right minute for the dramatic interest of the story, entered theForum while the gold was being weighed, bade the Romans take back theirgold, threw the weights to the Gauls, and told Brennus proudly that itwas the Roman custom to pay their debts in iron, not in gold. 

A fight ensued, as might be expected. The Gauls were driven from thecity. The next day Camillus attacked them in their camp, eight milesfrom Rome, and defeated them so utterly that not a man was left alive tocarry home the tale of the slaughter. 

This story of the coming of Camillus is too much like the last act of astage-play, or the dénouement of a novel, to be true. Most likely theGauls marched off with their gold, though they may have been attacked ontheir retreat, and most or all of the gold regained. 

Camillus, however, is said to have saved Rome in still another way. Theold city was in ashes. Most of the citizens were at Veii, where they hadfound or built new homes. They were loath to come back to rebuild aruined city. This Camillus induced them to do. Every appeal was made tothe local pride and the religious sentiments of the people. A centurion, marching with his company, and being obliged to halt in front of thesenate-house, called to the standard-bearer, "Pitch your standard here, for this is the best place to stop at. " This casual remark was lookedupon as an omen from heaven, and by this and the like means the peoplewere induced to return. 

Then the rebuilding of Rome began. The sites of the temples wereretraced as far as could be done in the ruins. The laws of the twelvetables and some other records were recovered, but the mass of thehistorical annals of Rome had been destroyed. Some relics were said tohave been miraculously preserved, among them the shepherd's crook ofRomulus. 

But the bulk of the possessions of the Romans had vanished in theflames; the streets were mere heaps of ashes; the very walls had been inpart pulled down; rubbish and ruin lay everywhere. Rome, like thephoenix, had to be born again from its ashes. Men built wherever theycould find a clear spot. Stones and roofing-material were brought fromVeii, and one city was dismantled that another might be restored. Stonesand timber were supplied to any man from the public lands. The cityrapidly rose again. But it was an irregular city; the streets rananywhere; no effort was made at rule or system in the making of the newRome. 

As for Camillus, he came to be honored as the second founder of Rome. While the Romans were at work on their new homes they were harassed bytheir foes, and he was kept busy with the army in the field. He livedfor twenty-five years longer, and in the year 367 B. C. , when some eightyyears of age, he marched again to meet the Gauls in a new assault uponRome, and defeated them with such slaughter that they left Rome alonefor many years afterwards. 

Marcus Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, was not so fortunate. Hecame forward as the patron of the poor, who began to suffer again fromthe severe laws against debtors. Finally he began to use his largefortune to relieve suffering debtors, and is said to have paid the debtsof four hundred debtors, thus saving them from bondage. This generositywon him the unbounded affection of the people, who called him the"Father of the Commons. " But it aroused the suspicion of the patricians, and some of these, against whom he had used violent language, had himarrested on a charge of treason, perhaps with good reason. Though heshowed the many honors he had received for services to his country, hewas condemned to death and his house razed to the ground. Thus thepatricians dealt with the benefactors of the poor. 

_THE CURTIAN GULF. _

During three years--363 to 361 B. C. --Rome was ravaged by the plague, which was so violent and fatal as to carry off the citizens by hundreds. In its first year it found a noble victim in Camillus, the conqueror ofVeii and the second founder of Rome, who four years before had a secondtime defeated the Gauls. He was the last of the old heroes of Rome, those whose glory belongs to romance rather than history. The Gauls haddestroyed the records of old Rome, and left only legend and romance. With the new Rome history fairly began. 

But we have another romantic tale to tell before we bid adieu to thestory of early Rome. In the second year of the pestilence a strange andportentous event occurred. The Tiber rose to an unusual height, overflowed with its waters the great circus (_Circus Maximus_), and puta stop to the games then going on, which were intended to propitiate thewrath of heaven, and induce the gods to relieve man from the evil of theplague. 

And now, in the midst of the Forum, there yawned open a fearful gulf, sowide and deep that the superstitious Romans viewed it with awe andaffright. Whether it was due to an earthquake or the wrath of the godsis not for us to say. The Romans believed the latter; those who prefermay believe the former. But, so we are told, it seemed bottomless. Throw what they would in it, it stood unfilled, and the feeling grewthat no power of man could ever fill its yawning depths. 

Man being powerless, the oracles of the gods were consulted. Must thisgaping wound always stand open in the soil of Rome? or could it in anyway be filled and the offended deities who had caused it be propitiated?From the oracle came the reply that it must stand open till that whichconstituted the best and true strength of the Roman commonwealth wascast as an offering into the gulf. Then only would it close, andthereafter forever would the state live and flourish. 

[Illustration: RUINS OF THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS. ]

The true strength of Rome! In what did this consist? This question menasked each other anxiously and none seemed able to answer. But there wasone man in Rome who interpreted rightly the meaning of the oracle. Thiswas a noble youth, M. Curtius by name, who had played his part valiantlyin war, and gained great fame by brave and manly deeds. The truestrength of Rome? he said to the people. In what else could it lie butin the arms and valor of her children? This was the sacrifice the godsdemanded. 

Going home, he put on his armor and mounted his horse. Riding to thebrink of the gulf, he, before the eyes of the trembling and awe-struckmultitude, devoted himself to death for the safety and glory of Rome, and plunged, with his horse, headlong into the gaping void. The peoplerushed after him to the brink, flung in their offerings, and with asurge the lips of the gap came together, and the gulf was foreverclosed. The place was afterwards known by the name of the Curtian Lake, in honor of this sacrifice. 

There are two other stories of this date worth repeating, as giving riseto two great names in Rome. T. Manlius, the future conqueror of theLatins, fought with a gigantic Gaul on the bridge over the Anio on theSalarian road. Slaying his enemy, he took from his neck a chain of gold(_torques_), which he afterwards wore upon his own. From this thesoldiers called him Torquatus, which name his descendants everafterwards bore. 

In a later battle Marcus Valerius fought with a second gigantic Gaul. During the combat a wonderful thing happened. A crow perched on thehelmet of the Roman, and continued there as the combatants fought. Occasionally it flew up into the air, and darted down upon the Gaul, striking at his eyes with its beak and claws. The Gaul, confounded bythis attack, soon fell by the sword of his foe, and then the crow flewup again, and vanished towards the east. The name of Corvus (crow) wasadded to that of Valerius, and was long afterwards borne by hisdescendants. 

These stories are rather to be enjoyed than believed. They probablycontain more poetry than history, particularly that of Curtius and thegulf. Yet they were accepted as history by the Romans, and are given inall their detail in the fine old work of Livy, the rarest and raciest ofthe story-tellers of Rome. 

_ANECDOTES OF THE LATIN AND SAMNITE WARS. _

The conquest of Italy by Rome was attended by many interesting events, of which we propose to relate here some of the more striking. Thecapture and burning of Rome by the Gauls, and the dispersal of her armyand people, ruinous as it seemed, was but an event in her career ofconquest. The city was no sooner rebuilt than the old régime of war wasresumed, and it was no longer a struggle between neighboring cities, butof Rome against powerful confederacies and peoples, such as theVolscians, the Etruscans, the Latins, the Campanians, and the Samnites, the final conquest of which gave her the dominion of Italy. 

The war with the Latins was attended with some circumstances showingstrongly the stern and indomitable spirit of the Romans. This war wascarried into Campania, in Southern Italy; and here, on a celebratedoccasion, when the two armies lay encamped in close vicinity on theplain of Capua, the Roman consuls issued a strict order againstskirmishing or engaging in single encounters with the enemy. The twopeoples were alike in arms and in language, and it was feared that suchchance combats might lead to confusion and disaster. 

The only man to disobey this order was T. Manlius, the son of one ofthe consuls. A Latin warrior, Geminus Metius, of Tusculum, challengedyoung Manlius to meet him in single combat; and the youthful warrior, fired by ambition and warlike zeal, and eager to sustain the honor ofRome, accepted the challenge, despite his father's order. If killed, hisfault would be atoned; if successful, victory over a noted warrior mustwin him pardon and praise. 

The duel that ensued was a fierce and gallant one. It ended in thetriumph of the young Roman, who laid his antagonist dead at his feet. Shouts of triumph from the Roman soldiers hailed his victory; and whenhe had despoiled his slain foe of his arms, and borne them triumphantlyfrom the field, the exultation of the Romans was as unbounded as thechagrin of the Latins was deep. Towards his father's tent the youngvictor proudly went, through exulting lines of troops, and laid hisspoils in triumph at the feet of the stern old man. 

The poor youth, the rejoicing soldiers, knew not the man with whom theyhad to deal. A military order had been disobeyed. To old Manlius thefact that the culprit was his son, and that he had added honor to theRoman arms, weighed nothing. Discipline stood above affection orvictory. Turning coldly away, the iron-hearted old Roman ordered thatthe soldiers should be immediately summoned to the prætorium, orgeneral's tent, and that his son should be beheaded before them. 

This cruel and inhuman order filled the whole army with horror. Yet nonedared interfere, and the unnatural mandate was obeyed, in full view ofan army whose late exultation was turned to deepest woe and indignation. The youngest soldiers never forgave the consul for his inhuman act, butregarded him with abhorrence to the end of his life. But their hatredwas mingled with fear and respect, and the stern lesson taught wasdoubtless felt for years in the discipline of the armies of Rome. 

The next event worthy of record took place in the vicinity of MountVesuvius, under whose very shadow a fierce battle was fought between theLatin and Roman armies, with the then silent volcano as witness. Twocenturies more were to pass before Rome would learn what fearful powerlay sleeping in this long voiceless mountain. 

Before the battle joined, the gods, as usual, were appealed to. Duringthe night both consuls had dreamed the same dream. A figure of more thanhuman stature and majesty had appeared to them, and told them that theearth and the gods of the dead claimed as their victims the general ofone party and the army of the other. When the sacrifices were made, thesigns given by the entrails of the victims signified the same thing. Itwas resolved, therefore, that if the army of Rome anywhere gave way, thegeneral commanding on that side should devote himself, and the army ofthe enemy with him, to the gods of death and the grave. "Fate, " said theaugurs, "requires the sacrifice of a general from one party and an armyfrom the other. Let it be our general and the Latin army that shallperish. "

It was the left wing of the Romans, commanded by the consul PubliusDecius, that first gave way. The consul at once accepted his fate. Bythe direction of the chief priest, he wrapped his consular toga aroundhis head, holding it to his face with his hand, and then set his feetupon a javelin, and repeated after the priest the words devoting him tothe gods of death. Then, arming himself at all points, and wrapping histoga around his body in the manner usual in sacrifices, he sprang uponhis horse, and spurred headlong into the ranks of the enemy, where hesoon fell dead. 

This sacrifice filled the Romans with hope, and the Latins, whounderstood its meaning, with dismay. Yet the latter, after being drivenback, soon recovered, and, despite the self-devotion of Decius, wouldprobably have won the victory had not the remaining consul brought uphis reserve troops just in time. In the end the Latins were utterlydefeated, and Vesuvius looked down on the massacre of one army by theswords of another, scarcely a fourth of the Latins escaping. Thus thegods seemed to keep their word, though probably the Roman reserve forcehad more to do with the victory than all the gods of Rome. 

The next event which we have to relate took place during the secondSamnite war. Its hero was L. Papirius Cursor, one of the favorite heroesof Roman tradition, and the avenger of the disgrace of the CaudineForks, the story of which we have next to tell. This famous soldier issaid to have possessed marvellous swiftness of foot and giganticstrength, with extraordinary capacity for food, while his ironstrictness of discipline was at times relieved by a rough humor. Allthis made his memory popular with the Romans, who boasted that Alexanderthe Great would have found in him a worthy champion, had that conquerorinvaded Italy. 

The event we have now to narrate occurred early in the war. One of theconsuls, being taken ill, was ordered to name a dictator to replace him, and chose Papirius Cursor. This champion appointed Q. Fabius Rullianus, another famous soldier, his master of the horse, and marched out toattack the Samnites. 

As it happened, the auspices taken by the dictator at Rome beforemarching to the seat of war were of no particular significance. Notsatisfied with them, he decided to take them again, and returned to Romefor this purpose, the auspices being of a kind which could only be takenwithin the city walls. He ordered the master of the horse to remainstrictly on the defensive during his absence. 

Fabius did not obey this order. He attacked the enemy and gained someadvantage. The annals say that he won a great victory, defeating theSamnites with a loss of twenty thousand men; but the annals have a habitof magnifying small affairs into large ones where they have any objectto gain. 

On hearing that his orders had been disobeyed, Papirius hurried back tothe camp in a violent rage, and with the intention of making such anexample of discipline as Manlius had made in the execution of his son. On reaching camp he ordered that Fabius should be immediately executed. His authority as dictator gave him power for this violent act; but hefailed to reckon on the spirit of the soldiers, who supported Fabius toa man, and broke into a violent demonstration that was almost mutiny. Sostrong was their feeling that the furious dictator found himself obligedto halt in his purpose. 

But Fabius knew too well the iron nature of his antagonist to trust hislife in his hands. That night he fled from the camp to Rome, andimmediately appealed to the senate for protection. Papirius followed inhot haste, and while the senators were still assembling arrived in Rome, where, under his authority as dictator, he gave order for the arrest ofthe culprit. In this critical situation the prisoner's father, M. Fabius, appealed to the tribunes for the protection of his son, sayingthat he proposed to carry the case before the assembly of the people. 

The tribunes found themselves in a dilemma. Papirius warned them not tosanction so flagrant a breach of military discipline, nor to lessen themajesty of the office of dictator, and they found themselves hesitatingbetween their duty to support the absolute power of the dictator andtheir abhorrence of an exercise of this power that must shock thefeelings of the whole Roman people. The people themselves relieved theirtribunes from this difficulty. They hastily met in assembly, and by aunanimous vote implored the dictator to be merciful, and for their sakesto forgive Fabius. His authority thus acknowledged, Papirius yielded, and declared that he pardoned the master of the horse. "And theauthority of the Roman generals, " says Livy, "was established no lessfirmly by the peril of Q. Fabius than by the actual death of the youngT. Manlius. "

It was well for Rome that Fabius was spared, for he afterwards provedone of their ablest generals. The time came, also, when he was able toconfer a benefit upon Papirius Cursor. This was during a subsequent warwith the Etruscans, in which he commanded as consul and gained greatvictories. Meanwhile a Roman army was defeated by the Samnites, and onthe news of this defeat reaching Rome the senate at once resolved toappoint Papirius once more as dictator. 

But this appointment must be made by a consul. One consul was with thedefeated army, perhaps dead. It was necessary to apply to Fabius, theother consul, and the declared enemy of the proposed dictator. Toovercome his personal feelings, a deputation of the highest senators wassent him, who read him the senate's decree and strongly urged him tosupport it. Fabius listened in dead silence, not answering by word orlook. When they had ended, he abruptly withdrew from the room. But atdead of night he pronounced, in the usual form, the nomination ofPapirius as dictator. When the deputies thanked him for his nobleconquest over his feelings, he listened still in dead silence, anddismissed them without a word in answer. 

We must now pass over years of war, in which both Fabius and Papiriusgained honor and fame, and come to an occasion in which the son ofFabius led a Roman army as consul, and met with a severe defeat by aSamnite army. He had been tricked by the Samnites, and great indignationwas aroused against him in Rome. It was proposed to remove him from hisoffice, a disgrace which no consul ever experienced in Roman history. Itwas also proposed that old Fabius should be appointed dictator. But theaged soldier, to preserve the honor of his son, offered to go with himas his lieutenant, and the offer was accepted by the senate. 

A second battle ensued, in the heat of which the consul becamesurrounded by the enemy, and his aged father led the charge to hisrescue. His example animated the Romans, they followed him in a vigorousassault, and a complete victory was won. Twenty thousand Samnites wereslain, four thousand taken prisoners, and with them their general, C. Pontius. After other victories the younger Fabius returned to Rome andwas given a triumph, while behind him rode his old father on horseback, as one of his lieutenants, delighting in the honor conferred on his son. The Samnite general was made to walk in the procession, and at its endwas taken to the prison under the Capitoline Hill and there beheaded. Itwas thus that Rome dealt with its captured foes. 

_THE CAUDINE FORKS. _

Westward from Rome rise the Apennine Mountains, the backbone of Italy;and amid their highest peaks, where the snow lies all the year long, andwhence streams flow into the two seas, dwelt the Sabines, an importantpeople, from whom came the mothers of the Roman state. There is a legendconcerning this people which we have now to tell. For many years theyhad been at war with their neighbors, the Umbrians; and at length, failing to conquer their enemies by their own strength, they sought toobtain the help of the divinities. They made a vow that if victory wasgiven to them, all the living creatures born that year in their landshould be held as sacred to the gods. 

The victory came, and they sacrificed all the lambs, calves, kids, andpigs of that year's birth, while they redeemed from the gods suchanimals as were not suitable for sacrifice. But, as it appeared, thedeities were not satisfied. The land refused to yield its fruits, andthe Sabines were not long in deciding why their crops had failed. Theyhad neither sacrificed nor redeemed the children born that year, and hadthus failed in their duty to the gods. 

To atone for this fault, all their children of that year's birth weredevoted to the god Mamers, and when they had grown up they were sentaway to make themselves a home in a new land. As the young men startedon their pilgrimage a bull went before them, and, as they fancied thatMamers had sent this animal for their guide, they piously followed him. He first lay down to rest when he had come to the land of the Opicans. This the Sabines took for a sign, and they fell on the Opicans, whodwelt in villages without walls, and drove them out from their country, of which the new-comers took possession. They then sacrificed the bullto Mamers; and in after-ages they bore the bull for their device. Theyalso took a new name, and were afterwards known as Samnites. 

While the Romans were extending their dominion in Central Italy, theSamnites were conquering the peoples farther south. Their dominionbecame great, and at one time included the famous cities of Herculaneumand Pompeii and many others of the cities of the southern plains. In thecentre of the Samnite country stood a remarkable mountain mass, anoffshoot from the Apennines. This mountain, now called the Matese, isnearly eight miles in circumference, and rises abruptly in hugewall-like cliffs of limestone to the height of three thousand feet. Itssurface is greatly varied in character, now sloping into deep valleys, now rising into elevated cliffs, of which the loftiest is six thousandfeet high. It is rich in springs, which gush out in full flow, anddisappear again in the caverns with which limestone rocks abound. Itsvalleys yield abundant pasture and magnificent beech forests, while onits highest summits the snow tarries till late summer, and in thehottest months of summer the upland pastures continue cool. 

This mountain fastness formed the citadel from which the Samnites issuedin conquering excursions over the surrounding country, and enabled themin time to extend their dominion far and wide, and to rival Rome in thewidth and importance of their state. Thus Rome and Samnium approachedeach other step by step, and the time inevitably came when they were tojoin issue in war. 

Three wars took place between the Romans and the Samnites. In the firstof these Valerius Corvus (the origin of whose name of Corvus we havealready told) led the Roman army to victory. In honor of this victoryRome received from Carthage (with which city it was to engage in adesperate contest in later years) a golden crown, for the shrine ofJupiter in the Capitol. 

In 329 B. C. Rome finally overcame the Volscians, with whom they had beenmany years at war, and three years afterwards war with the Samnites wasagain declared. The latter were invading Campania, in which country laythe volcano of Vesuvius and the city of Naples. Rome came to the aid ofthe Campanians, and a war began which lasted for more than twenty years. 

Of this war we have but one event to tell, that in which Rome sufferedthe greatest humiliation it had met with in its entire career, thefamous affair of the Caudine Forks. It was in the fifth campaign of thewar that this event took place. Two Roman armies had marched intoCampania and threatened the southern border of Samnium, which theSamnite general Pontius was prepared to defend. His force occupied thepasses which led from the plain of Naples into the higher mountainvalleys; but he deceived the Romans by spreading the report that thewhole Samnite army had gone to Apulia, where they were besieging thecity of Luceria. His purpose was to lure the Romans into these difficultdefiles under the impression that the Samnites were trusting to thenatural strength of their country for its defence. 

The trick succeeded. The Roman consuls believed the story, and, in theirhaste to go to the aid of their allies in Apulia, chose the shortestroute, that which led through the Samnian hills. The absence of theSamnite army would enable them, they thought, to force their way throughSamnium without difficulty; and, blinded by their false confidence, theconsuls recklessly led their men into the fatal pass of Caudium. 

This pass was a narrow opening in the outer wall of the Apennines, whichled from the plain of Campania to Maleventum. To-day it is traversed bythe road from Naples to Benevento, and is called the valley of Arpaia. In the past it was famous as Caudium. 

Into this defile the Romans marched between the rugged mountainacclivities that bounded its sides, and through the deep silence thatreigned around. The pass seemed utterly deserted, and they expectedsoon to emerge into a more open valley in the interior of the hills. 

But as they advanced the pass contracted, until it became but a narrowgorge, and this they found to be blocked up with great stones and felledtrees. Brought to a halt, the troops stood gazing in dismay and dread onthese obstacles, when suddenly the silence was broken, loud war-criesfilled the air, and armed Samnites appeared as if by magic, covering thehills on both flanks, and crowding into the pass in the rear. 

The Romans were caught in such a trap as that from which Cincinnatus hadrescued a Roman army many years before. But there was here noCincinnatus with his stakes, and they were far from Rome. The entrappedarmy made a desperate effort to escape, attacking the Samnites in therear, and seeking to force their way up the rugged surrounding hills. They fought in vain. Many of them fell. The Samnite foe pressed themstill more closely into the rocky pass. Only the coming of night savedthem from total destruction. 

But escape was impossible. The gorge in front was completely blocked up. The pass in the rear was held by the enemy in force. The flanking hillscould hardly have been climbed by an army, even if they had not beenoccupied. No resource remained to the Romans but to encamp in thebroader part of the narrow valley, and there wait in hopeless despairthe outcome of their folly. 

The Samnites could well afford to let them wait. The rear was held bythe bulk of their army. The obstacles in front were strongly guarded. Every possible track by which the Romans might try to scale the hillswas held. Some desperate attempts to break out were made, but they wereeasily repulsed. Nothing remained but surrender, or death by famine. 

One or other of these alternatives had soon to be chosen. A large army, surprised on its march, and confined within a barren pass, could nothave subsistence for any long period. Nothing was to be gained by delay, and they might as well yield themselves prisoners of war at once. 

So the Romans evidently thought, and without delay they put themselvesat the mercy of their conquerors. "We yield ourselves your captives, "they said, "to do with as you will. Put us all to the sword, if such beyour decision; sell us into slavery; or hold us as prisoners until weare ransomed: one thing only we ask, save our bodies, whether living ordead, from all unworthy insults. "

In this request they forgot the record that Rome had made; forgot howoften noble captives had been forced to walk in Roman triumphs and beenafterwards slain in cold blood in the common prison; forgot how they hadrecently refused the rites of burial to the body of a noble Samnite. ButPontius, the Samnite general, was much less of a barbarian than theRomans of that age. He was acquainted with Greek philosophy, had evenheld conversation, it is said, with Plato, and was not the man toindulge in cruel or insulting acts. 

"Restore to us, " he said to the consuls, "the towns and territory youhave taken from us, and withdraw the colonists whom you have unjustlyplaced on our soil. Conclude with us a treaty of peace, in which eachnation shall be acknowledged to be independent of the other. Swear to dothis, and I will grant you your lives and release you without ransom. Each man of you shall give up his arms, but may keep his clothesuntouched; and you shall pass before our army as prisoners who have beenin our power and whom we have set free of our own will, when we mighthave killed or sold them, or held them for ransom. "

These terms the consuls were glad enough to accept. They were far betterthan they would have granted the Samnites under similar circumstances. Pontius now called for the Roman fecialis, whose duty it was to concludeall treaties and take all oaths for the Roman people. But there was nofecialis with the army. The senate had sent none, having resolved tomake no terms with the Samnites, and to accept only their absolutesubmission. They had never dreamed of such a turn of the tide as this. 

In the absence of the proper officer, the consuls and all the survivingofficers took the oath, while it was agreed that six hundred knightsshould be held as hostages until the Roman people had ratified thetreaty. Why Pontius did not insist on treating with the senate andpeople of Rome at once, instead of trusting to them to ratify a treatymade with prisoners of war, we are not told. He was soon to learn howweak a reed to lean upon was the Roman faith. 

The treaty made, the humiliating part of the affair came. The Romanarmy was obliged to march under the yoke, which consisted of two spearsset upright and a third fastened across their tops. Under this thesoldiers of the legions without their arms, and wearing but a singlearticle of clothing, --the campestre or kilt, which reached from thewaist to the knees, --passed in gloomy succession. Even the consuls wereobliged to appear in this humble plight, the six hundred hostage knightsalone being spared. 

This was no peculiar insult, but a common usage on such occasions. TheRomans had imposed it more than once on defeated enemies. They were nowto endure it themselves, and the affair, under the name of the CaudineForks, has become famous in history. 

Pontius proved, indeed, generous to his foes. He supplied carriages forthe sick and wounded, and furnished provisions to last the army until itshould arrive at Home. When that city was reached the senate and peoplecame out and welcomed the soldiers with the greatest kindness. But thewounded pride of the legionaries could not be soothed. Those who hadhomes in the country stole from the ranks and sought their severaldwellings. Those who lived in Rome lingered without the walls untilafter the sun had fallen, and then made their way home through thedarkness. The consuls were obliged to enter in open day, but as soon aspossible they sought their homes, and shut themselves up in privacy. 

As for the city, it went into mourning. All business was suspended; thepatricians laid aside their gold rings and took off the red border oftheir dresses which marked their rank; the plebeians appeared inmourning garbs; there was as much weeping for those who had returned indishonor as for those left dead on the field; all rejoicings, festivals, and marriages were set aside for a year of happier omen. 

The final result was such as might have been expected from the earlierrecord of Rome. The senate refused to recognize the treaty. The defeatedconsuls themselves sustained this bad faith, saying that they and allthe officers should be given up to the Samnites, as having promised whatthey were unable to perform. 

This was done. Half stripped, as when they passed under the yoke, andtheir hands bound behind their backs, the officers were conducted by thefecialis to the Samnian frontier, and delivered to the Samnites as menwho had forfeited their liberty by their breach of faith. The surrendercompleted, Postumius, one of the consuls, struck a fecialis violentlywith his knee, --his hands and feet being bound, --and cried out, --

"I now belong to the Samnites, and I have done violence to the sacredperson of a Roman fecialis and ambassador. You will rightfully wage warwith us, Romans, to avenge this outrage. "

This transparent trick was wasted on Pontius. He refused the victimsoffered him. They were not the guilty ones, he said. The legions must beplaced again in the Caudium Valley, or Rome keep the treaty. Anythingelse would be base and faithless. 

The treaty was not kept. The war went on. And nearly thirty yearsafterwards, as we have told in the preceding story, Pontius, who hadbehaved so generously to the Romans, was led as a prisoner in a Romantriumph, and then basely beheaded while the triumphal car of the victorascended the Capitoline Hill. His death is one of the darkest blots onthe Roman name. "Such a murder, " we are told, "committed or sanctionedby such a man as Q. Fabius, is peculiarly a national crime, and provesbut too clearly that in their dealings with foreigners the Romans hadneither magnanimity, nor humanity, nor justice. "

_THE FATE OF REGULUS. _

We have followed the growth of Rome from its seed in the cradle ofRomulus and Remus to its early maturity in the conquest of Italy. Itstriumph over the Latins, Samnites, and Etruscans had made it virtuallymaster of that peninsula. In the year 280 B. C. It was first called uponto meet a great foreign soldier in the celebrated Pyrrhus of Epirus, whohad invaded Italy. How this great soldier scared the Romans with hiselephants and defeated them in the field, but was finally baffled andleft the country in disgust, we have told in "Historical Tales ofGreece. " It was not many years after this that Rome herself went abroadin search of new foes, and her long and bitter struggle with Carthagebegan. 

The great city of Carthage lay on the African side of the Mediterranean, where it had won for itself a great empire, and had added to itsdominion by important conquests in Spain and Sicily. Settled manycenturies before by emigrants from the Phoenician city of Tyre, ithad, like its mother city, grown rich through commerce, and was now lordof the Mediterranean and one of the great cities of the earth. With thiscity Rome was now to begin a mighty struggle, which would last for manyyears and end in the utter destruction of the great African city andstate. 

Pyrrhus of Epirus, on leaving Sicily, had said, "What a grand arena thiswould be for Rome and Carthage to contend upon!" And it was in theisland of Sicily that the struggle between these two mighty powersbegan. In the year 264 B. C. , nearly five centuries after the founding ofRome, that city first sent its armies beyond the borders of Italy, andthe long contest between Rome and Carthage was inaugurated. 

Some soldiers of fortune, who had invaded Sicily and found themselves introuble, called upon Rome for help. Carthage, which held much of theisland, was also appealed to, and both sent armies. The result was acollision between these armies. In two years' time most of Sicilybelonged to Rome, and Carthage retained hardly a foothold upon thatisland. 

This rapid success of the Romans in foreign conquest encouraged themgreatly. But they were soon to find themselves at a disadvantage. Beingan inland power, they knew nothing of ocean warfare, and possessed nonebut small ships. Carthage, on the contrary, had a large and powerfulfleet, and now began to use it with great effect. By its aid theCarthaginians took from Rome many towns on the coast of Sicily. Theyalso landed on and ravaged the coasts of Italy. It was made evident tothe Roman senate that if they looked for success they must meet theenemy on their own element, and dispute with Carthage the dominion ofthe sea. 

How was this to be done? The largest ships they knew of had only threebanks of oars. Carthage possessed war vessels with five banks of oars, and built on a plan different from that of the smaller vessels. Rome hadno model for these ships, and was at a loss what to do. Fortunately aCarthaginian quinquereme (a ship with five banks of oars) ran ashore onthe coast of Italy, and was captured and sent to Rome. This served as amodel for the shipwrights of that city, and so energetically did theyset to work that in two months after the first cutting of the timberthey had built and launched more than a hundred ships of this class. 

And while the ships were building the crews selected for thequinqueremes were practising. Most of them had never even seen an oar, and they were now placed on benches ashore, ranged like those in theships, and carefully taught the movements of rowing, so that when theships were launched they were quite ready to drive them through thewaves. The Romans, who could fight best hand to hand, added a new andimportant device, providing their ships with wooden bridges attached tothe masts, and ready to fall on an enemy's vessel whenever one camenear. A great spike at the end was driven into the deck of the enemy'sship by the weight of the falling bridge, and held her while the Romanscharged across the bridge. 

The new fleet was soon tried. It met a Carthaginian fleet on the northcoast of Sicily. The Romans proved poor sailors, but the bridges gavethem the victory. These could be wheeled round the mast and dropped inany direction, and, however the Carthaginians approached, they foundthemselves grappled and boarded by the Romans, whose formidable swordssoon did the rest. In the end Carthage lost fifty ships and ten thousandmen, and with them the dominion of the seas. 

This success was a great event in the history of Rome. The victory wascelebrated by a great naval triumph, and a column was set up in theForum, which was adorned with the ornamental prows of ships. 

Three years afterwards Rome resolved to carry the war into Africa, andfor this purpose built a great fleet of three hundred and thirty ships, and manned by one hundred and forty thousand seamen, in addition to itssoldiers or fighting men. These were largely made up of prisoners fromSardinia and Corsica, Carthaginian islands which had been attacked bythe Roman fleets. The two consuls in command were L. Manlius Vulso andM. Atilius Regulus. 

The great fleet of Rome met a still greater Carthaginian one at Ecnomus, on the southern coast of Sicily, and here one of the greatest sea-fightsof history took place. In the end the Romans lost twenty-four ships, while of those of the enemy thirty were sunk and sixty-four captured. The remainder of the enemy's fleet fled in all haste to Carthage. 

The Romans now prepared to take one of the greatest steps in theirhistory, --to cross the sea to the unknown African world. The soldiersmurmured loudly at this. They were to be taken to a new and strangeland, burnt by scorching heats and infested with noisome beasts andmonstrous serpents; and they were to be led into the very stronghold ofthe enemy, where they would be at their mercy. Even one of theirtribunes supported the soldiers in this complaint. But Regulus was equalto the occasion: he threatened the tribune with death, forced thesoldiers on board, and sailed for the African coast. 

The event proved very different from what the soldiers had feared. Thearmy of Carthage was so miserably commanded that the Romans landedwithout trouble and ravaged the country at their will; and instead ofthe scorching heats and deadly animals they had feared, they foundthemselves in a fertile and thickly-settled country, where grew richharvests of corn, and where were broad vineyards and fruitful orchardsof figs and olives. Towns were numerous, and villas of wealthy citizenscovered the hills. 

On this rich and undefended country the hungry Roman army was let loose. Villas were plundered and burnt, horses and cattle driven off in vastnumbers, and twenty thousand persons, many of them doubtless of wealthand rank, were carried away to be sold as slaves. Meanwhile the army ofCarthage lurked on the hills, and was defeated wherever encountered. Regulus, who had been left in sole command of the Roman army, overranthe country without opposition, and boasted that he had taken andplundered more than three hundred walled towns or villages. 

The Carthaginians, who were also attacked by roving desert tribes, whoproved even worse than the Romans, were in distress, and begged forpeace. But the terms offered by Regulus were so intolerable that it wasimpossible to accept them. "Men who are good for anything should eitherconquer or submit to their betters, " said Regulus, haughtily. He had notyet learned how unwise it is to drive a strong foe to desperation, andwas to pay dearly for his arrogance and pride. 

The tide of war turned when Carthage obtained a general fit to commandan army. An officer who had been sent to Greece for soldiers of fortunebrought with him on his return a Spartan named Xanthippus, a man who hadbeen trained in the rigid Spartan discipline and had played his partwell in the wars of Greece. He openly and strongly condemned the conductof the generals of Carthage; and, on his words being reported to thegovernment, he was sent for, and so clearly pointed out the causes ofthe late disasters that the direction of all the forces of Carthage wasplaced in his hands. 

And now a new spirit awakened in Carthage. Xanthippus reviewed thetroops, taught them how they should meet the Roman charge, and filledthem with such enthusiasm and hope that loud shouts broke from theranks, and they eagerly demanded to be led at once to battle. 

The army numbered only twelve thousand foot, but had four thousandcavalry and a hundred elephants, in which much confidence was placed. The demand of the soldiers was complied with; they boldly marched out, and now no longer to the hills, but to the lower ground, where thedevastation of the enemy was at once checked. 

Regulus was forced to risk a battle, for his supply of food was inperil. He marched out and encamped within a mile of the foe. TheCarthaginian generals, on seeing these hardy Roman legions, so longvictorious, were stricken with something like panic. But the soldierswere eager to fight, and Xanthippus bade the wavering generals not tolose so precious an opportunity. They yielded, and bade him to draw upthe army on his own plan. 

In the battle that ensued the victory was due to the cavalry andelephants. The cavalry drove that of Italy from the field, and attackedthe Roman rear. The elephants broke through the Roman lines in front, furiously trampling the bravest underfoot. Those who penetrated the lineof the elephants were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian infantry. Of thewhole Roman army, two thousand of the left wing alone escaped; Regulus, with five hundred others, fled, but was pursued and taken prisoner; theremainder of the army was destroyed to a man. The defeat was total. Romeretained but a single African port, which was soon given up. Xanthippus, crowned with glory and richly rewarded, returned to Greece to enjoy thefame he had won. 

For five years Regulus remained a prisoner in Carthage, while the warwent on in Sicily. Here, in the year 250 B. C. , the Romans gained animportant victory at Panormus (now Palermo), and Carthage, weary of thestruggle, sent to Rome to ask for terms of peace. With the ambassadorscame Regulus, who had promised to return to Carthage if the negotiationsshould fail, and whom the Carthaginians naturally expected to use hisutmost influence in favor of peace. 

They did not know their man. Regulus proved himself one of thoseindomitable patriots of whom there are few examples in the ages. Onreaching the walls of Rome he refused at first to enter, saying that hewas no longer a citizen, and had lost his rights in that city. When theambassadors of Carthage had offered their proposal to the senate, Regulus, who had remained silent, was ordered by the senate to give hisopinion of the proposed treaty. Thus commanded, he astonished all whoheard by strongly advising the senate not to make the treaty. He mightdie for his words, he might perish in torture, but the good of hiscountry was dearer to him than his own life, and he would not counsel atreaty that might prove of advantage to the enemy. He even spoke againstan exchange of prisoners, saying that he had not long to live, having, he believed, been given a secret poison by his captors, and would notmake a fair exchange for a hale and hearty Carthaginian general. 

Such an instance of self-abnegation has rarely been heard of in history. It has made Regulus famous for all time. His advice was taken, thetreaty was refused; he, refusing to break his parole, or even to see hisfamily, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors, knowing that he wasgoing to his death. The rulers of that city, so it is said, furiousthat the treaty had been rejected through his advice, resolved torevenge themselves on him by horrible tortures. His eyelids were cutoff, and he was exposed to the full glare of the African sun. He wasthen placed in a cask driven full of nails, and left there to die. 

It is fortunate to be able to say that there is no historical warrantfor this story of torture, or for the companion story that the wife andson of Regulus treated two Carthaginian prisoners in the same manner. Wehave reason to believe that it is untrue, and that Regulus suffered noworse tortures than those of shame, exile, and imprisonment. 

_HANNIBAL CROSSES THE ALPS. _

In the year 235 B. C. The gates of the Temple of Janus were closed, forthe first time since the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king ofRome, nearly five centuries before. During all that long period war hadhardly ever ceased in Rome. And these gates were soon to be thrown openagain, in consequence of the greatest war that the Roman state had everknown, a war which was to bring it to the very brink of destruction. 

The end of the first Punic War--as the war with Carthage wascalled--left Rome master of the large island of Sicily, the firstprovince gained by that ambitious city outside of Italy. Advantage wasalso taken of some home troubles in Carthage to rob that city of theislands of Sardinia and Corsica, --a piece of open piracy which redoubledthe hatred of the Carthaginians. 

Yet Rome just now was not anxious for war with her southern rival. Therewas enough to do in the north, for another great invasion of Gauls wasthreatened. And about this time the Capitol was struck by lightning, aprodigy which plunged all Rome into terror. The books of the Sibyl werehastily consulted, and were reported to say, "When the lightning shallstrike the Capitol and the Temple of Apollo, then must thou, O Roman, beware of the Gauls. " Another prophecy said that the time would come"when the race of the Greeks and the race of the Gauls should occupy theForum of Rome. "

But Rome had its own way of dealing with prophecies and discounting thedecrees of destiny. A man and woman alike of the Gaulish and of theGreek race were buried alive in the Forum Boarium, and in this cruel waythe public fear was allayed. As for the invasion of the Gauls, Rome metand dealt with them in its usual fashion, defeating them in two battles, in the last of which the Gaulish army was annihilated. This ended thisperil, and the dominion of Rome was extended northward to the Alps. 

It was fortunate for the Romans that they had just at this time ridthemselves of the Gauls, for they were soon to have a greater enemy tomeet. In the first Punic War, Carthage had been destitute of acommander, and had only saved herself by borrowing one from Greece. Inthe second war she had a general of her own, one who has hardly had hisequal before or since, the far-famed Hannibal, one of the few soldiersof supreme ability which the world has produced. 

During the peace which followed the first Punic War Carthage sent anexpedition to Spain, with the purpose of extending her dominions in thatland. This was under the leadership of Hamilcar, a soldier of muchability. As he was about to set sail he offered a solemn sacrifice forthe success of the enterprise. Having poured the libation on thevictim, which was then duly offered on the altar, he requested all thosepresent to step aside, and called up his son Hannibal, at that time aboy of but nine years of age. Hamilcar asked him if he would like to goto the war. With a child's eagerness the boy implored his father to takehim. Then Hamilcar, taking the boy by the hand, led him up to the altar, and bade him lay his hand on the sacrifice, and swear "that he wouldnever be the friend of the Romans. " Hannibal took the oath, and he neverforgot it. His whole mature life was spent in warfare with Rome. 

From the city of New Carthage (or Carthagena), founded by Carthage inSpain, Hamilcar gradually won a wide dominion in that land. He waskilled in battle after nine years of success, and was succeeded byHasdrubal, another soldier of fine powers. On the death of Hasdrubal, Hannibal, then twenty-six years of age, was made commander-in-chief ofthe Carthaginian armies in Spain. Shortly afterwards his long strugglewith Rome began. 

Hannibal had laid siege to and captured the city of Saguntum. The peopleof Saguntum were allies of Rome. That city, being once more ready forwar with its rival, sent ambassadors to Carthage to demand that Hannibaland his officers should be surrendered as Roman prisoners, for a breachof the treaty of peace. After a long debate, Fabius, the Roman envoy, gathered up his toga as if something was wrapped in it, and said, "Look;here are peace and war; take which you choose. " "Give whichever youplease, " was the haughty Carthaginian reply. "Then we give you war, "said Fabius, shaking out the folds of the toga. "With all our hearts wewelcome it, " cried the Carthaginians. The Romans left at once for Rome. Had they dreamed what a war it was they were inviting it is doubtful ifthey would have been so hasty in seeking it. 

War with Rome was what Hannibal most desired. He was pledged tohostility with that faithless city, and had assailed Saguntum for thepurpose of bringing it about. On learning that war was declared, heimmediately prepared to invade Italy itself, leading his army across thegreat mountain barrier of the Alps. He had already sent messengers tothe Gauls, to invite their aid. They were found to be friendly, andeager for his coming. They had little reason to love Rome. 

A significant dream strengthened Hannibal's purpose. In his vision heseemed to see the supreme god of his fathers, who called him into thepresence of all the gods of Carthage, seated in council on theirthrones. They solemnly bade him to invade Italy, and one of the councilwent with him into that land as guide. As they passed onward the divineguide warned, "See that you look not behind you. " But at length, heedless of the command, the dreamer turned and looked back. He sawbehind him a monstrous form, covered thickly with serpents, while as itmoved houses, orchards, and woods fell crashing to the earth. "Whatmighty thing is this?" he asked in wonder. "You see the desolation ofItaly, " replied the heavenly guide; "go on your way, straight forward, and cast no look behind. " And thus, at the age of twenty-seven, Hannibal, at the command of his country's gods, went forward to theaccomplishment of his early vow. 

His route lay through northern Spain, where he conquered all before him. Then he marched through Gaul to the Rhone. This he crossed in the faceof an army of hostile Gauls, who had gathered to oppose him. He had moredifficulty with his elephants, of which he had thirty-seven. Rafts werebuilt to convey these great beasts across the stream, but some of them, frightened, leaped overboard and drowned their drivers. They then swamacross themselves, and all were safely landed. 

[Illustration: HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS. ]

Other difficulties arose, but all were overcome, and at length themountains were reached. Here Hannibal was to perform the most famous ofhis exploits, the crossing of the great chain of the Alps with an army, an exploit more remarkable than that which brought similar fame toNapoleon in our own days, for with Hannibal it was pioneer work, whileNapoleon profited by his example. 

The mountaineers proved to be hostile, and gathered at all points thatcommanded the narrow pass. But they left their posts at night, andHannibal, when nightfall came, set out with a body of light troops andoccupied all these posts. When morning dawned the natives, to theirdismay, found that they had been outgeneralled. 

Soon after the day began the head of the army entered a dangerousdefile, and made its way in a long slender line along the terrace-likepath which overhung the valley far below. The route provedcomparatively easy for the foot-soldiers, but the cavalry and thebaggage-animals only made their way with great difficulty, findingobstacles at almost every step. 

The sight of the struggling cavalcade was too much for the caution ofthe natives. Here was abundant plunder at their hands. From many pointsof the mountain above the road they rushed down upon the Carthaginians, arms in hand. A frightful disorder followed. So narrow was the path thatthe least confusion was likely to throw the heavily-ladenbaggage-animals down the precipitous steep. The cavalry horses, woundedby the arrows and javelins of the mountaineers, plunged wildly about anddoubled the confusion. 

It was fortunate for Hannibal that he had taken the precaution of thenight before. From the post he had taken with his light troops the wholescene of peril and disorder was visible to his eyes. Charging down thehill, he attacked the mountaineers and drove them from their prey. Butit was a dearly bought victory, for the fight on the narrow roadincreased the confusion, and in seeking the relief of his army he causedthe destruction of many of his own men. 

At length the perilous defile was safely passed, and the army reached awide and rich valley beyond. Here was the town of Montmélian, theprincipal stronghold of the mountaineers. This Hannibal took by storm, and recovered there many of his own men, horses, and cattle which thenatives had taken, while he found an abundant store of food for the useof his weary soldiers. 

After a day's rest here the march was resumed. During the next threedays the army moved up the valley of the river Isère without difficulty. The natives met them with wreaths on their heads and branches in theirhands, promising peace, offering hostages, and supplying cattle. Hannibal mistrusted the sudden friendliness of his late foes, but theyseemed so honest that he accepted some of them as guides through adifficult region which he was now approaching. 

He had reason for his mistrust, for they treacherously led him into anarrow and dangerous defile, which might have easily been avoided; andwhile the army was involved in this straitened pass an attack wassuddenly made by the whole force of the mountaineers. Climbing along themountain-sides above the defile, they hurled down stones on theentangled foe, and loosened and rolled great rocks down upon theirdefenceless heads. 

Fortunately Hannibal, moved by his doubts, had sent his cavalry andbaggage on first. The attack fell on the infantry, and with a body ofthese he forced his way to the summit of one of the cliffs above thedefile, drove away the foe, and held it while the army made its wayslowly on. As for the elephants, they were safe from attack. The verysight of these huge beasts filled the barbarians with such terror thatthey dared not even approach them. There was no further peril, and onthe ninth day of its march the army reached the summit of the Alps. 

It was now the end of October. The grass and flowers which carpet thatelevated spot in summer had become replaced by snow. In truth, theclimate of the Alps was colder at that period than now, and snow lay onthe higher passes all through the year. The soldiers were disheartenedby cold and fatigue. The scene around them was desolate and dreary. Newperils awaited their onward course. But no such feeling enteredHannibal's courageous soul. Fired by hope and ambition, he sought toplant new courage in the hearts of his men. 

"The valley you see yonder is Italy, " he said, pointing to the sunnyslope which, from their elevated position, appeared not far away. "Itleads to the country of our friends, the Gauls; and yonder is our way toRome. " Their eyes followed the direction of his pointing hand, and theirhearts grew hopeful again with the cheerfulness and enthusiasm of hiswords. 

Two days the army remained there, resting, and waiting for thestragglers to come up. Then the route was resumed. 

The mountaineers, severely punished, made no further attacks; but theroad proved more difficult than that by which the ascent had been made. Snow thickly covered the passes. Men and horses often lost their way, and plunged to their death down the precipitous steep. Onward struggledthe distressed host, through appalling dangers and endless difficulties, losing men and animals at every step. But these troubles were triflingcompared with those which they were now to endure. They suddenly foundthat the track before them had entirely disappeared. An avalanche hadcarried it bodily away for about three hundred yards, leaving only asteep and impassable slope covered with loose rocks and snow. 

A man of less resolution than Hannibal might well have succumbed beforethis supreme difficulty. The way forward had vanished. To go back wasdeath. It was impossible to climb round the lost path, for the heightsabove were buried deep in snow. Nothing remained but to perish wherethey were, or to make a new road across the mountain's flank. 

The energetic commander lost not an hour in deciding. Moving back to aspace of somewhat greater breadth, the snow was removed and the armyencamped. Then the difficult engineering work began. Hands wereabundant, for every man was working for his life. Tools were improvised. So energetically did the soldiers work that the road rapidly grew beforethem. As it was cut into the rock it was supported by solid foundationsbelow. Many ancient authors say that Hannibal used vinegar to soften therocks, but this we have no sufficient reason to believe. 

So vigorously did the work go on, so many were the hands engaged, thatin a single day a track was made over which the horses andbaggage-animals could pass. These were sent over and reached the lowervalley in safety, where pasture was found. 

The passage of the elephants was a more difficult task. The road forthem must be solid and wide. It took three days of hard labor to makeit. Meanwhile the great beasts suffered severely from hunger, forforage there was none, nor trees on whose leaves they might browse. 

At length the road was strong enough to bear them. They safely passedthe perilous reach. After them came Hannibal with the rear of the army, soon reaching the cavalry and baggage. Three days more the wearied hoststruggled on, down the southward slopes of the Alps, until finally theyreached the wide plain of Northern Italy, having safely accomplished thegreatest military feat of ancient times. 

But Hannibal found himself here with a frightfully reduced army. TheAlps had taken toll of their invader. He had reached Gaul from Spainwith fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. He reached Italy withonly twenty thousand foot and six thousand horse. No fewer thanthirty-three thousand men had perished by the way. It was a puny forcewith which to invade a country that could oppose it with hundreds ofthousands of men. But it had Hannibal at its head. 

_HOW HANNIBAL FOUGHT AND DIED. _

The career of Hannibal was a remarkable one. For fifteen years heremained in Italy, frequently fighting, never losing a battle, keepingRome in a state of terror, and dwelling with his army in comfort andplenty on the rich Italian plains. Yet he represented a commercial cityagainst a warlike state. He was poorly supported by Carthage; Rome wasindomitable; great generals rose to command her armies; in the end themighty effort of Hannibal failed, and he was forced to leave Romeunconquered and Italy unsubdued. 

The story of his deeds is a long one, a record of war and bloodshedwhich our readers would be little the wiser and none the better forhearing. We shall therefore only give it in the barest outline. 

Hannibal defeated the Romans on first meeting them, and the Gaulsflocked to his army. But of the elephants, which he had brought withsuch difficulty over the Rhone and the Alps, the cold of December killedall but one. But without them he met a large Roman army at LakeTrasimenus, and defeated it so utterly that but six thousand escaped. 

Rome, in alarm, chose a dictator, Fabius Maximus by name. This leaderadopted a new method of warfare, which has ever since been famous asthe "Fabian policy. " This was the policy of avoiding battle and seekingto wear the enemy out, while harassing him at every opportunity. Fabiuskept to the hills, followed and annoyed his great antagonist, yetsteadily avoided being drawn into battle. 

For more than a year this continued, during all which time Fabius grewmore and more unpopular at Rome. The waiting policy was not that whichthe Romans had hitherto employed, and they became more impatient as daysand months passed without an effort to drive this eating ulcer fromtheir plains. In time the discontent grew too strong to be ignored. A_man of business_, who was said to have begun life as a butcher's son, Varro by name, became the favorite leader of the populace, and was intime raised to the consulship. He enlisted a powerful army, ninetythousand strong, and marched away to the field of Cannæ, where Hannibalwas encamped, with the purpose of driving this Carthaginian wasp fromthe Italian fields. 

It was a dwarf contending with a giant. The vainglorious Varro gaveHannibal the opportunity for which he had long waited. The Roman armymet with such a crushing defeat that its equal is scarcely known inhistory. Baffled, beaten, and surrounded by Hannibal's army, the Romanswere cut down in thousands, no quarter being asked or given, till whenthe sun set scarce three thousand men were left alive and unhurt ofVarro's hopeful host. Of Hannibal's army less than six thousand hadfallen. Of the Roman forces more than eighty thousand paid the penaltyof their leader's incompetence. 

Hannibal did not advance to Rome, which seemed to lie helpless beforehim. He doubtless had good reasons for not attempting to capture it. Maharbal, his cavalry general, said, "Let me advance with the horse, anddo you follow; in four days from this time you shall sup in theCapitol. " Hannibal, on the contrary, sent terms of peace to Rome. Thesethe Romans, unconquerable in spirit despite their disaster, refused. Hethen marched to southern Italy and established his head-quarters in therich city of Capua, which opened its gates to him, and which he promisedto make the capital of all Italy. 

Hannibal won no more great victories in Italy, though he was victor inmany small conflicts. The Romans had paid dearly for their impatience. Fabius was again called to the head of the army, and his old policy wasrestored. And thus years went on, Hannibal's army gradually decreasingand receiving few reinforcements from home, while Rome in time regainedCapua and other cities. 

At length, in the year 208 B. C. , Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, whocommanded the Carthaginian armies in Spain, resolved to go to hisbrother's aid. He crossed the Alps, as Hannibal had done, following thesame pass, and making use of the bridges, rock cuttings, and mountainroads which his brother had made eleven years before. 

Had this movement been successful, it might have been the ruin of Rome. But the despatches of Hasdrubal were intercepted by the Romans. Perceiving their great danger, they raised an army in haste, marchedagainst the invader, and met him before he could effect a junction withhis brother. The Carthaginians were defeated with great slaughter. Hasdrubal fell on the field, and his head was cruelly sent to Hannibal, who, as he looked with bitter anguish on the gruesome spectacle, sadlyremarked, "I recognize in this the doom of Carthage. "

Yet for four years more Hannibal remained in the mountains of SouthernItaly, holding his own against Rome, though he had lost all hopes ofconquering that city. But Rome had now a new general, with a new policy. This was the famous Scipio, and the policy was to carry the war intoCarthage. Fabius had done his work, and new measures came with new men. Scipio led an army into Spain, which he conquered from Carthage. Then heinvaded Africa, and Hannibal was recalled home, after his long andvictorious career in Italy. 

Hannibal had never yet suffered a defeat. He was now to experience acrushing one. With a new army, largely made up of raw levies, he met theveteran troops of Scipio on the plains of Zama. Hannibal displayed herehis usual ability, but fortune was against him, his army was routed, theveterans he had brought from Italy were cut down where they stood, andhe escaped with difficulty from the field on which twenty thousand ofhis men had fallen. It was an earlier Waterloo. 

His flight was necessary, if Carthage was to be preserved. He was theonly man capable of saving that great city from ruin. Terms of peacewere offered by Scipio, severe ones, but Hannibal accepted them, knowing that nothing else could be done. Then he devoted himself to therestoration of his country's power, and for seven years workeddiligently to this end. 

His efforts were successful. Carthage again became prosperous. Rometrembled for fear of her old foe. Commissioners were sent to Carthage todemand the surrender of Hannibal, on the plea that he was secretlyfomenting a new war. His reforms had made enemies in Carthage, hisliberty was in danger, and nothing remained for him but to flee. 

Escaping secretly from the city, the fugitive made his way to Tyre, themother-city of Carthage, where he was received as one who had sheduntold glory on the Phoenician name. Thence he proceeded to Antioch, the capital of Antiochus, king of Syria, and one of the successors ofAlexander the Great. 

During the period over which we have so rapidly passed the empire ofRome had been steadily extending. In addition to her conquests in Spainand Africa, Macedonia, the home-realm of Alexander the Great, had beensuccessfully invaded, and the first great step taken by Rome towards theconquest of the East. 

The loss of Macedonia stirred up Antiochus, who resolved on war withRome, and marched with his army towards Europe. Hannibal, who had failedto find him at Antioch, overtook him at Ephesus, and found him gladenough to secure the services of a warrior of such world-wide fame. 

Antiochus, unfortunately, was the reverse of a great warrior, and by nomeans the man to cope with Rome. Hannibal saw at a glance that his armywas not fit to fight with a Roman force, and strongly advised him toequip a fleet and invade Southern Italy, saying that he himself wouldtake the command. But nothing was to be done with Antiochus. He wasfilled with conceit of his own greatness, was ignorant of the power ofRome, and was jealous of the glory which Hannibal might attain. Hisguest then advised that an alliance should be made with Philip, king ofMacedonia. This, too, was neglected, and the Romans hastened to allythemselves with Philip. Antiochus, puffed up with pride, pointed to hisgreat army, and asked Hannibal if he did not think that these wereenough for the Romans. 

"Yes, " he replied, sarcastically, "enough for the Romans, however greedythey may be. "

[Illustration: THE BATHS OF CARACALLA. ]

It proved as he feared. The Romans triumphed. Hannibal was employed onlyin a subordinate naval command, in which field of warfare he had noexperience. Peace was made, and Antiochus agreed to deliver him up toRome. The greatest of Rome's enemies was again forced to fly for hislife. 

Hannibal now took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. Here heremained for five years. But even here the implacable enmity of Romefollowed him. Envoys were sent to the court of Prusias to demand hissurrender. Prusias, who was a king on a small scale, could not, or wouldnot, defend his guest, and promised to deliver him into the hands of hisunrelenting foes. 

Only one course remained. Death was tenfold preferable to figuring in aRoman triumph. Finding the avenues to his house secured by the king'sguards, the great Carthaginian took poison, which he is said to havelong carried with him in a ring, in readiness for such an emergency. Hedied at Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the sea of Marmora, in hissixty-fourth year, as closely as we know. In the same year, 183 B. C. , died his great and successful antagonist, Scipio Africanus. 

Thus perished, in exile, one of the greatest warriors of any age, who, almost without aid from home, supported himself for fifteen years inItaly against all the power of Rome and the greatest generals she couldsupply. Had Carthage shown the military spirit of Rome, Hannibal mighthave stopped effectually the conquering career of that warlike city. 

_ARCHIMEDES AT THE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE. _

The city of Syracuse, the capital of Sicily, rose to prominence inancient history through its three famous sieges. The first of these wasthat long siege which ruined Athens and left Syracuse uncaptured. Thesecond was the siege by Timoleon, who took the city almost without ablow. The third was the siege by the Romans, in which the genius of oneman, the celebrated mathematician and engineer Archimedes, long set atnaught all the efforts of the besieging army and fleet. 

This remarkable defence took place during the wars with Hannibal. Suchwas the warlike energy of the Romans, that, while their city itself wasthreatened by this great general, they sent armies abroad, one intoSpain and another into Sicily. The latter, under a consul named Appius, besieged Syracuse by sea and land. Hoping to take the city by suddenassault, before it could be properly got ready for defence, Appiuspushed forward his land force, fully provided with blinds and ladders, against the walls. At the same time a fleet of sixty quinqueremes underthe consul Marcellus advanced to the assault from the side of theharbor. Among these vessels were eight which had been joined togethertwo and two, and which carried machines called sackbuts. These consistedof immensely long ladders, projecting far beyond the bows, and soarranged that they could be raised by ropes and pulleys, and the end letfall upon the top of the wall. Four men, well protected by woodenblinds, occupied the top of each ladder, ready to attack the defendersof the walls while their comrades hastened up the ladder to their aid. 

There was only one thing on which the consuls had not counted, and thatwas that Syracuse possessed the greatest artificer of ancient times. They had to fight not Syracuse alone but Syracuse and Archimedes; andthey found the latter their most formidable foe. In short, the skill ofthis one man did more to baffle the Romans than the strength and courageof all the garrison. 

The historian Polybius has so well told the story of this famousdefence, that we cannot do better than quote from his work. He remarks, after describing at length the Roman preparations, --

"In this manner, then, when all things were ready, the Romans designedto attack the towers. But Archimedes had prepared machines that werefitted to every distance. While the vessels were yet far removed fromthe walls, he, employing catapults and balistæ that were of the largestsize and worked by the strongest springs, wounded the enemy with hisdarts and stones, and threw them into great disorder. When the dartspassed beyond them he then used other machines, of a smaller size, andproportioned to the distance. By these means the Romans were soeffectually repulsed that it was not possible for them to approach. 

"Marcellus, therefore, perplexed with this resistance, was forced toadvance silently with his vessels in the night. But when they came sonear to the land as to be within the reach of darts, they were exposedto a new danger, which Archimedes had contrived. He had caused openingsto be made in many parts of the wall, equal in height to the stature ofa man, and to the palm of the hand in breadth. Then, having planted onthe inside archers and little scorpions, he discharged a multitude ofarrows through the openings, and disabled the soldiers that were onboard. In this manner, whether the Romans were at a great distance orwhether they were near, he not only rendered useless all their efforts, but destroyed also many of their men. 

"When they attempted also to raise the sackbuts, certain machines whichhe had erected along the whole wall inside, and which were beforeconcealed from view, suddenly appeared above the wall and stretchedtheir long beaks far beyond the battlements. Some of these machinescarried masses of lead and stone not less than ten talents [about eighthundred pounds] in weight. Accordingly, when the vessels with thesackbuts came near, the beaks, being first turned by ropes and pulleysto the proper point, let fall their stones, which broke not only thesackbuts but the vessels likewise, and threw all those who were on boardinto the greatest danger. 

"In the same manner also the rest of the machines, as often as the enemyapproached under cover of their blinds, and had secured themselves bythat protection against the darts that were discharged through theopenings in the wall, let fall upon them stones of so large a size thatall the combatants on the prow were forced to retire from their station. 

"He invented, likewise, a hand of iron, hanging by a chain from the beakof a machine, which was used in the following manner. The person who, like a pilot, guided the beak, having let fall the hand and caught holdof the prow of any vessel, drew down the opposite end of the machine, that was inside of the walls. When the vessel was thus raised erect uponits stern, the machine itself was held immovable; but the chain beingsuddenly loosened from the beak by means of pulleys, some of the vesselswere thrown upon their sides, others turned with their bottoms upward, and the greatest part, as the prows were plunged from a considerableheight into the sea, were filled with water, and all that were on boardthrown into tumult and disorder. 

"Marcellus was in no small degree embarrassed when he found himselfencountered in every attempt by such resistance. He perceived that allhis efforts were defeated with loss, and were even derided by the enemy. But, amidst all the anxiety that he suffered, he could not help jestingupon the inventions of Archimedes. 

"'This man, ' said he, 'employs our ships as buckets to draw water, and, boxing about our sackbuts, as if they were unworthy to be associatedwith him, drives them from his company with disgrace. ' Such was thesuccess of the siege on the side of the sea. 

"Appius also, on his part, having met with the same obstacles in hisapproaches, was in like manner forced to abandon his design. For whilehe was yet at a considerable distance, great number of his men weredestroyed by the balistæ and the catapults, so wonderful was thequantity of stones and darts, and so astonishing the force with whichthey were thrown. The means, indeed, were worthy of Hiero, who hadfurnished the expense, and of Archimedes, who designed them, and bywhose directions they were made. 

"If the troops advanced nearer to the city, they either were stopped intheir advance by the arrows that were discharged through the openings inthe walls, or, if they attempted to force their way under cover of theirbucklers, they were destroyed by stones and beams that were let fallupon their heads. Great mischief also was occasioned by these hands ofiron that have been mentioned; for they lifted men with their armor intothe air and dashed them upon the ground. Appius, therefore, was at lastconstrained to return back again into his camp. "

This ended the assault. For eight months the Romans remained, but neveragain had the courage to make a regular attack, depending rather on thehope of reducing the crowded city by famine. "So wonderful, and of suchimportance on some occasions, is the power of a single man, and theforce of science properly employed. With so great armies both by sea andland the Romans could scarcely have failed to take the city, if one oldman had been removed. But while he was present they did not even dareto make the attempt; in the manner, at least, which Archimedes was ableto oppose. " The story was told in past times that the great scientistset the Roman ships on fire by means of powerful burning glasses, butthis is not believed. 

The end of this story may be briefly told. The Romans finally took thecity by surprise. Tradition tells that, as the assailants were rushingthrough the streets, with death in their hands, they found Archimedessitting in the public square, with a number of geometrical figures drawnbefore him in the sand, which he was studying in oblivion of the tumultof war around. As a Roman soldier rushed upon him sword in hand, hecalled out to the rude warrior not to spoil the circle. But the soldiercut him down. Another story says that this took place in his room. 

When Cicero, years afterwards, came to Syracuse, he found the tomb ofArchimedes overgrown with briers, and on it the figure of a sphereinscribed in a cylinder, to commemorate one of his most importantmathematical discoveries. 

_THE FATE OF CARTHAGE. _

In all the history of Rome there is no act of more flagrant treacheryand cruelty than that of her dealings with the great rival city ofCarthage. In the whole history of the world there is nothing more baseand frightful than the utter destruction of that mighty mart ofcommerce. The jealousy of Rome would not permit a rival to exist. It wasnot enough to drive Hannibal into exile; Carthage was recovering hertrade and regaining her strength; new Hannibals might be born; theterror of the great invasion, the remembrance of the defeat at Cannæ, still remained in Roman memories. 

Cato the Censor, a famous old Roman, now eighty-four years of age, andwho had served in the wars against Hannibal, hated Carthage with thehatred of a fanatic, and declared that Rome would never be safe whilethis rival was permitted to exist. 

Rising from his seat in the senate, the stern old man glowinglydescribed the power and wealth of Carthage. He held up some great figs, and said, "These figs grow but three days' sail from Rome. " There couldbe no safety for Rome, he declared, while Carthage survived. 

"Every speech which I shall make in this house, " he sternly declared, "shall finish with these words: 'My opinion is that _Carthage must bedestroyed_ (_delenda est Carthago_. )'"

These words sealed the fate of Carthage. Men of moderate views spokemore mercifully, but Cato swayed the senate, and from that day the doomof Carthage was fixed. 

The Carthaginian territory was being assailed and ravaged by Masinissa, the king of Numidia. Rome was appealed to for aid, but delayed andtemporized. Carthage raised an army, which was defeated by Masinissa, then over ninety years of age. The war went on, and Carthage was reducedto such straits that resistance became impossible, and in the end thecity and all its possessions were placed at the absolute disposal of thesenate of Rome, which, absolutely without provocation, had declared war. 

An army of eighty thousand foot and four thousand horse was sent toAfrica. Before the consuls commanding it there appeared deputies fromCarthage, stating what acts of submission had already been made, andhumbly asking what more Rome could demand. 

"Carthage is now under the protection of Rome, " answered Censorinus, theconsul, "and can no longer have occasion to engage in war; she musttherefore deliver without reserve to Rome all her arms and engines ofwar. "

Hard as was this condition, the humiliated city accepted it. We may havesome conception of the strength of the city when it is stated that themilitary stores given up included two hundred thousand stand of arms andtwo thousand catapults. It was a condition to which only despair couldhave yielded, seemingly the last act of humiliation to which any citycould consent. 

But if Carthage thought that the end had been reached, she was destinedto be rudely awakened from her dream. The consuls, thinking the city nowto be wholly helpless, dropped the mask they had worn, and made knownthe senate's treacherous decree. 

"The decision of the senate is this, " said Censorinus, coldly, to theunhappy envoys of Carthage: "so long as you possess a fortified citynear the sea, Rome can never feel sure of your submission. The senatetherefore decrees that you must remove to some point ten miles distantfrom the coast. _Carthage must be destroyed. _"

The trembling Carthaginians heard these fatal words in stupefiedamazement. On recovering their senses they broke out into passionateexclamations against the treachery of Rome, and declared that thefreedom of Carthage had been guaranteed. 

"The guarantee refers to the people of Carthage, not to her houses, "answered the consul. "You have heard the will of the senate; it must beobeyed, and quickly. "

Carthage, meanwhile, waited in gloomy dread the return of thecommissioners. When they gave in the council-chamber the ultimatum ofRome, a cry of horror broke from the councillors. The crowd in thestreet, on hearing this ominous sound, broke open the doors and demandedwhat fatal news had been received. 

On being told, they burst into a paroxysm of fury. The members of thegovernment who had submitted to Rome were obliged to fly for theirlives. Every Italian found in the city was killed. The party of thepeople seized the government, and resolved to defend themselves to theuttermost. An armistice of thirty days was asked from the consuls, thata deputation might be sent to Rome. This was refused. Despair gavecourage and strength. The making of new arms was energetically begun. Temples and public buildings were converted into workshops; men andwomen by thousands worked night and day; every day there were producedone hundred shields, three hundred swords, five hundred pikes andjavelins, and one thousand bolts for catapults. The women even cut offtheir hair to be twisted into strings for the catapults. Corn wasgathered in all haste from every quarter. 

The consuls were astonished and disappointed. They had not counted onsuch energy as this. They did not know what it meant to drive a foe todesperation. They laid siege to Carthage, but found it too strong forall their efforts. They proceeded against the Carthaginian army in thefield, but gained no success. Summer and winter passed, and Carthagestill held out. Another year (148 B. C. ) went by, and Rome still lostground. Old Cato, the bitter foe of Carthage, had died, at the age ofeighty-five. Masinissa, the warlike Numidian, had died at ninety-five. The hopes of the Carthaginians grew. Those of Rome began to fall. Therich booty that was looked for from the sack of Carthage was not to behandled so easily as had been expected. 

What Rome lacked was an able general. One was found in Scipio, theadopted son of Publius Scipio, son of the great Scipio Africanus. Thisyoung man had proved himself the only able soldier in the war. The armyadored him. Though too young for the consulship, he was elected to thathigh office, and in 147 B. C. Sailed for Carthage. 

The new commander found the army disorganized, and immediately restoredstrict discipline to its ranks. The suburb of Megara, from which thepeople of the city obtained their chief supply of fresh provisions, wasquickly taken. Want of food began to be felt. The isthmus whichconnected the city with the mainland was strongly occupied, andland-supplies were thus cut off. The fleet blockaded the harbor, but, asvessels still made their way in, Scipio determined to build anembankment across the harbor's mouth. 

This was a work of great labor, and slowly proceeded. By the time it wasdone the Carthaginians had cut a new channel from their harbor to thesea, and Scipio had the mortification to see a newly-built fleet offifty ships sail out through this fresh passage. On the third day anaval battle took place, in which the greater part of the new fleet wasdestroyed. 

Another winter came and went. It was not until the spring of 146 B. C. That the Romans succeeded in forcing their way into the city, and theirlegions bivouacked in the Forum of Carthage. 

But Carthage was not yet taken. Its death-struggle was to be adesperate one. The streets leading from the Forum towards the Citadelwere all strongly barricaded, and the houses, six stories in height, occupied by armed men. For three days a war of desperation was waged inthe streets. The Romans had to take the first houses of each street byassault, and then force their way forward by breaking from house tohouse. The cross streets were passed on bridges of planks. 

Thus they slowly advanced till the wall of Bosra--the high ground of theCitadel--was reached. Behind them the city was in flames. For six daysand nights it burned, destroying the wealth and works of years. When thefire declined passages were cleared through the ruins for the army toadvance. 

Scipio, who had scarcely slept night or day during the assault, now laydown for a short repose, on an eminence from which could be seen theTemple of Esculapius, whose gilded roof glittered on the highest pointof the hill of Bosra. He was aroused to receive an offer from thegarrison to surrender if their lives were spared. Scipio consented tospare all but Roman deserters, and from the gates of the Citadel marchedout fifty thousand men as prisoners of war. 

Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian commander, who had made so brave a defenceagainst Rome, retired with his family and nine hundred deserters andothers into the Temple of Esculapius, as if to make a final desperatedefence. But his heart failed him at the last moment, and, slipping outalone, he cast himself at Scipio's feet, and begged his pardon andmercy. His wife, who saw his dastardly act, reproached him bitterly forcowardice, and threw herself and her children into the flames whichenveloped the Citadel. Most of the deserters perished in the sameflames. 

"Assyria has fallen, " said Scipio, as he looked with eyes of previsionon the devouring flames. "Persia and Macedonia have likewise fallen. Carthage is burning. The day of Rome's fall may come next. "

For five days the soldiers plundered the city, yet enough of statues andother valuables remained to yield the consul a magnificent triumph onhis return to Rome. Before doing so he celebrated the fall of Carthagewith grand games, in which the spoil of that great city was shown thearmy. To Rome he sent the brief despatch, "Carthage is taken. The armywaits for further orders. "

The orders sent were that the walls should be destroyed and every houselevelled to the ground. A curse was pronounced by Scipio on any one whoshould seek to build a town on the site. The curse did not proveeffective. Julius Cæsar afterwards projected a new Carthage, andAugustus built it. It grew to be a noble city, and in the third centuryA. D. Became one of the principal cities of the Roman empire and animportant seat of Western Christianity. It was finally destroyed by theArabs. 

_THE GRACCHI AND THEIR FALL. _

In the assault by the Roman forces on Megara, the suburb of Carthage, the first to mount the wall was a young man named Tiberius Gracchus, brother-in-law of Scipio, the commander, and grandson of the famousScipio Africanus. This young man and his brother were to play prominentparts in Rome. 

One day when the great Scipio was feasting in the Capitol, with othersenators of Rome, he was asked by some friends to give his daughterCornelia in marriage to Tiberius Gracchus, a young plebeian. Proudpatrician as he was, he consented, for Gracchus was highly esteemed forprobity, and had done him a personal service. 

On his return home he told his wife that he had promised his daughter toa plebeian. The good woman, who had higher aims, blamed him severely forhis folly, as she deemed it. But when she was told the name of herproposed son-in-law she changed her mind, saying that Gracchus was theonly man worthy of the gift. 

Of Cornelia's children three became notable, a daughter, who became thewife of the younger Scipio, and two sons, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, who are known in history as "The Gracchi. " Their father became famousin war and peace, taking important steps in the needed movement ofreform. He died, and after his death many sought the hand of the nobleCornelia in marriage, among them King Ptolemy of Egypt. But she refusedthem all, devoting her life to the education of her children, for whichshe was admirably fitted by her lofty spirit and high attainments. 

Concerning this lady, one of the greatest and noblest which Romeproduced, there is an anecdote, often repeated, yet well worth repeatingagain. A Campanian lady who called upon her, and boastfully spoke of herwealth in gold and precious stones, asked Cornelia for the pleasure ofseeing her jewels. Leading her visitor to another room, the noble matronpointed to her sleeping children, and said, "There are my jewels; theonly ones of which I am proud. "

These children were born to troublous times. Rome had grown incorruption and ostentation as she had grown in wealth and dominion. Whenthe first Punic War broke out Rome ruled only over Central and SouthernItaly. When the third Punic War ended Rome was lord of all Italy, Spain, and Greece, and had wide possessions in Asia Minor and Northern Africa. Wealth had flowed abundantly into the imperial city, and with it pride, corruption, and oppression. The great grew greater, the poor poorer, andthe old simplicity and frugality of Rome were replaced by overweeningluxury and greed of wealth. 

The younger Tiberius Gracchus, who was nine years older than hisbrother, after taking part in the siege of Carthage, went to Spain, where also was work for a soldier. On his way thither he passed throughEtruria, and saw that in the fields the old freeman farmers haddisappeared, and been replaced by foreign slaves, who worked with chainsupon their limbs. No Cincinnatus now ploughed his own small fields, butthe land was divided up into great estates, cultivated by the captivestaken in war; while the poor Romans, by whose courage these lands hadbeen won, had not a foot of soil to call their own. 

This spectacle was a sore one to Tiberius, in whose mind the wiseteachings of his mother had sunk deep. Here were great spaces of fertileland lying untilled, broad parks for the ostentation of their proudpossessors, while thousands of Romans languished in poverty, and Romehad begun to depend for food largely upon distant realms. 

There was a law, more than two hundred years old, which forbade any manfrom holding such large tracts of land. Tiberius thought that this lawshould be enforced. On his return to Rome his indignant eloquence soonroused trouble in that city of rich and poor. 

"The wild beasts of the waste have their caves and dens, " he said; "butyou, the people of Rome, who have fought and bled for its growth andglory, have nothing left you but the air and the sunlight. There are fartoo many Romans, " he continued, "who have no family altar nor ancestraltomb. They have fought well for Rome, and are falsely called the mastersof the world; but the results of their fighting can only be seen in theluxury of the great, while not one of them has a clod of dirt to callhis own. "

Cornelia urged her son to do some work to ennoble his name and benefitRome. 

"I am called the 'daughter of Scipio, '" she said. "I wish to be known as'the mother of the Gracchi. '"

It was not personal glory, but the good of Rome, that the young reformersought. He presented himself for the office of tribune, and was electedby the people, who looked upon him as their friend and advocate. And athis appeal they crowded from all quarters into the city to vote for there-establishment of the Licinian laws, --those forbidding the rich tohold great estates. 

These laws were re-enacted, and those lands which the aristocrats hadoccupied by fraud or force were taken from them by a commission andreturned to the state. 

All this stirred the proud land-holders to fury. They hated Gracchuswith a bitter hatred, and began to plot secretly for his overthrow. About this time Attalus, king of Pergamus, moved by some erratic whim, left his estates by will to the city of Rome. Those who had beendeprived of their lands claimed these estates, to repay them for theiroutlays in improvement. Gracchus opposed this, and proposed to dividethis property among the plebeians, that they might buy cattle and toolsfor their new estates. 

His opponents were still more infuriated by this action. He had offeredhimself for re-election to the office of tribune, promising the peoplenew and important reforms. His patrician foes took advantage of theopportunity. As he stood in the Forum, surrounded by his partisans, anuproar arose, in the midst of which Gracchus happened to raise his handto his head. His enemies at once cried out that he wanted to makehimself king, and that this was a sign that he sought a crown. 

A fierce fight ensued. The opposing senators attacked the crowd sofuriously that those around Gracchus fled, leaving him unsupported. Hehastened for refuge towards the Temple of Jupiter, but the priests hadclosed the doors, and in his haste he stumbled over a bench. Before hecould rise one of his enemies struck him over the head with a stool. Asecond repeated the blow. Before the statues of the old kings, whichgraced the portals of the temple, the tribune fell dead. 

Many of his supporters were slain before the tumult ceased. Many wereforced over the wall at the edge of the Tarpeian Rock, and were killedby their fall. Three hundred in all were slain in the fray. 

Thus was shed the first blood that flowed in civil strife at Rome. Itwas a crimson prelude to the streams of blood that were to follow, inthe long series of butcheries which were afterwards to disgrace theRoman name. 

Tiberius Gracchus may well be called the Great, for the effect of hislife upon the history of Rome was stupendous. He held office for notmore than seven months, yet in that short time the power of the senatewas so shaken by him that it never fully recovered its strength. Had hebeen less gentle, or more resolute, in disposition his work might havebeen much greater still. Fiery indignation led him on, but soldierlyenergy failed him at the end. 

Caius Gracchus was in Spain at the time of his brother's murder. On hisreturn to Rome he lived in quiet retirement for some years. The senatethought he disapproved of his brother's laws. They did not know him. Atlength he offered himself as a candidate for the tribuneship, and soconvincing was his eloquence that the people supported him in numbers, and he was elected to the office. 

He at once made himself an ardent advocate of his brother's reforms, andwith such impassioned oratory that he gained adherents on every side. Hemade himself active in all measures of public progress, advocating thebuilding of roads and bridges, the erection of mile-stones, the givingthe right to vote to Italians in general, and the selling of grain atlow rates to the deserving poor. The laws passed for these purposes areknown as the Sempronian laws, from the name of the family to which theGracchi belonged. 

By this time the rich senators had grown highly alarmed. Here was a newGracchus in the field, as eloquent and as eager for reform as hisbrother, and who was daily growing more and more in favor with thepeople. Something must be done at once, or this new demagogue--as theycalled him--would do them more harm than that for which they had slainhis brother. 

They adopted the policy of fraud in place of that of violence. Thepeople were gullible; they might be made to believe that the senators ofRome were their best friends. A rich and eloquent politician, Drusus byname, proposed measures more democratic even than those which Gracchushad advocated. This effort had the effect that was intended. Theinfluence of Gracchus over the popular mind was lessened. The people hadproved fully as gullible as the shrewd senators had expected. 

Among other measures proposed by Gracchus was one for planting a colonyand building a new city on the site of Carthage. The senate appeared toapprove this, and appointed him one of the commissioners for laying outthe settlement. He was forced to leave Rome, and during his absence hisenemies worked more diligently than ever. Gracchus was defeated in theelection for tribune that followed. 

And now the plans of his enemies matured. It was said that the newcolony at Carthage had been planted on the ground cursed by Scipio. Wolves had torn down the boundary-posts, which signified the wrath ofthe gods. The tribes were called to meet at the Capitol, and repeal thelaw for colonizing Carthage. 

A tumult arose. A man who insulted Gracchus was slain by an unknownhand. The senate proclaimed Gracchus and his friends public enemies, androused many of the people against him by parading the body of the slainman. Gracchus and his friends took up a position on the Aventine Hill. Here they were assailed by a strong armed force. 

There was no resistance. Gracchus sought refuge at first in the Templeof Diana, and afterwards made his way to the Grove of the Furies, several of his friends dying in defence of his flight. A single slaveaccompanied him. When the grove was reached by his pursuers both werefound dead. The faithful slave had pierced his master's heart, and thenslain himself by the same sword. 

Slaughter ruled in Rome. The Tiber flowed thick with the corpses of thefriends of Gracchus, who were slain by the fierce patricians. The housesof the murdered reformers were plundered by the mob, for whose good theyhad lost their lives. For the time none dared speak the name of Gracchusexcept in reprobation. Yet he and his brother had done yeoman servicefor the ungrateful people of Rome. 

Cornelia retired to Misenum, where she lived for many years. But shelived not in grief for her sons, but in pride and triumph. They had diedthe deaths of heroes and patriots, and she gloried in their fame, declaring that they had found worthy graves in the temples of the gods. 

So came the people to think, in after-years, and they set up in theForum a bronze statue to the great Roman matron, on which were inscribedonly these words: TO CORNELIA, THE MOTHER OF THE GRACCHI. 

_JUGURTHA, THE PURCHASER OF ROME. _

Masinissa, the valiant old king of Numidia, who had ravaged Carthage inits declining days, left his kingdom to his three sons. On the death ofMicipsa, the last remaining of these, in 118 B. C. , he, in turn, left thekingdom to his two sons. They were still young, and Jugurtha, theircousin, was appointed their guardian and the regent of the kingdom. 

Shrewd, bold, ambitious, and unscrupulous, Jugurtha was the mostdangerous man in Numidia to whose care the young princes could have beenconfided. Scipio read his character rightly, and said to him, "Trust toyour own good qualities, and power will come of itself. Seek it by basearts, and you will lose all. "

Some of the young nobles in Scipio's camp gave baser advice. "At Rome, "they told him, "all things could be had for money. " They advised him tobuy the support of Rome, and seize the crown of Numidia. 

Jugurtha took this base advice, instead of the wise counsel of Scipio. He was destined to pay dearly for his ambition and lack of faith andhonor. One of the young princes showed a high spirit, and Jugurtha hadhim assassinated. The other fled to Rome and sought the support of thesenate. Jugurtha now, following the suggestions of his false friends, sent gold and promises to Rome, purchased the support of venal senators, and had voted to him the strongest half of the kingdom; Adherbal, theyoung prince, being given the weaker half. 

But the young man was not left in peace, even in this reducedinheritance. Jugurtha sent more presents to Rome, and, confident of hisstrength there, boldly invaded the dominions of Adherbal. A Romancommission threatened him with Rome's displeasure if he did not keepwithin his own dominions. He affected to submit, but as soon as thecommissioners turned their backs the daring adventurer renewed hisefforts, got possession of his cousin through treachery, and at onceordered him to be put to death with torture. 

Since Rome had become great and powerful no one had dared so openly tocontemn its decrees. But Jugurtha knew the Romans of that day, andtrusted to his gold. He bought a majority in the senate, defied theminority, and would have gained his aim but for one honest man. This wasthe tribune Memmius, who, seeing that the senate was hopelessly corrupt, called the people together in the Forum, told them of the crimes ofJugurtha, and demanded justice and redress at their hands. 

And now a struggle arose like that between the Gracchi and the richsenators. Jugurtha sent more gold to Rome. An army was despatchedagainst him, but he purchased it also. He gave up his elephants inpledge of good faith, and then bought them back at a high price. Theofficers divided the money, and the army failed to advance. 

Jugurtha would have triumphed but for Memmius, who resolutely kept uphis attacks. In the end the usurper was ordered to come to Rome, --undera safe-conduct. He came, and here by his gold purchased one of thetribunes, who protected him against the wrath of Memmius and the people. But Memmius was resolute and determined. Another Numidian prince wasfound and asked to demand the crown from the senate. Jugurtha learnedwhat was afoot, and sent an agent, Bomilcar by name, to assassinate thenew prince. An indictment was laid against Bomilcar, but Jugurtha, fearing to have his own share in the murder exposed, sent him offsecretly to Africa. 

This was too much, even for the purchased members of the senate. Suchopen disdain of the majesty of Rome no man, however avaricious, daredsupport. Jugurtha had a safe-conduct, and could not be seized, but hewas ordered to quit Rome immediately. He did so, and as he passed out ofthe gates he looked back and said, "A city for sale if she can find apurchaser. "

The remainder of Jugurtha's history is one of war. The time for winningpower by bribery was past. The people were so thoroughly aroused andincensed that none dared yield to cupidity. The indignation grew. Thefirst army sent against Jugurtha was baffled by the wily African, caughtin a defile, and only escaped by passing under the yoke, and agreeingto evacuate Numidia. 

This disgrace stirred Rome more deeply still. A new consul was electedand a new army raised. A commission was appointed to inquire into theconduct of the senate, and several of the leading members were foundguilty of high treason and put to death without mercy. Rome had begun topurge itself. 

The new general, Metellus, was not one to be sent under the yoke. Hedefeated Jugurtha in the field and pursued him so unrelentingly thatsoon the African usurper was a fugitive, without an army, and with onlysome fortresses under his control. 

Metellus had with him as his principal officer a man who was to becomefamous in Roman history. This man, Caius Marius, was then fifty years ofage. Yet he had years enough before him to play a mighty part. He was aman of the people, rough and uneducated; scorned learning, but had avigorous ambition and a striking military genius. He claimed to be a_New Man_, knew no Greek, and boasted that he had no images but "prizeswon by valor and scars upon his breast. "

This man made himself the favorite of the populace, was elected consul, and by undisguised trickery took the conduct of the war out of the handsof Metellus just as the latter was about to succeed. With him to Africawent another man who was to become equally famous, L. Cornelius Sulla, the future chief of Rome. Sulla was not a _New Man_. He was anaristocrat, knew Greek better than Marius knew Latin, was educated anddissipated, and showed the marks of a dissolute life in his face. Whenhe rode into the camp of Marius at the head of the cavalry he had seenno service, and the rugged soldier looked with contempt on thiseffeminate pleasure-seeker who had been sent as his lieutenant. He soonlearned his mistake, and before the campaign ended Sulla was his mosttrusted officer and chief adviser. 

In the subsequent conduct of the war there is an interesting story totell. There were two hill-forts in Numidia which still remained inJugurtha's control. One of these was taken easily. The other--whichcontained all that was left of the usurper's treasures--was a formidableplace, which long defied the Roman engineers. It stood on a precipitousrock, with only a single narrow ascent; was well garrisoned and suppliedwith arms, food, and water; and so long defied all the efforts of Mariusthat he almost despaired of its capture. 

In this dilemma a happy chance came to his aid. A Ligurian soldier, apractised mountaineer, being in search of water, saw a number of snailscrawling up the rock in the rear of the castle. These were a favoritefood with him, and he gathered what he saw, and climbed the cliff insearch of more. Higher and higher he went, till he had nearly reachedthe summit of the rock. Here he found himself near a large oak, whichhad rooted itself in the rock crevices, and grew upward so as to overtopthe castle hill. 

The Ligurian, led by curiosity, climbed the tree, and gained a pointfrom which he could see the castle, undefended on this side, andwithout sentinels. Having taken a close observation, he descended, carefully examining every point as he went. He now hastened to the tentof Marius, recounted to him his exploit, and offered to guide a party upthe perilous ascent. 

Marius was quick to seize this hopeful chance. Five trumpeters and fourcenturions were selected, who were placed under the leadership of themountaineer. Laying aside all clothing and arms that would obstructthem, they followed the Ligurian up the rock. He, an alert and skilfulclimber, here and there tied ropes to projecting points, here lent themthe aid of his hand, here sent them up ahead and carried their armsafter them. At length, with great toil and risk, they reached thesummit, and found the castle at this point undefended and unwatched, theNumidians being all on the opposite side. 

Marius, being apprised of their success, ordered a vigorous assault infront. The garrison rushed to the defence of their outer works. In theheat of the action a sudden clangor of trumpets was heard in their rear. This unexpected sound spread instant alarm. The women and children whohad come out to watch the contest fled in terror. The soldiers nearestthe walls followed. At length the whole body, stricken suddenly withpanic, took to flight, followed in hot pursuit by their foes. 

Over the deserted works the Romans clambered, into the castle theyburst, all who opposed them were cut down, and in a short time the placewhich had so long defied them was theirs, while the four trumpets towhich their victory was due sounded loudly the war-peal of triumph. 

Jugurtha was still at large. He was supported by Bocchus, king ofMauritania, whose daughter he had married. Sulla was sent to demand hissurrender. Bocchus refused at first, but at length, through fear ofRome, consented, and the bold usurper was betrayed into Sulla's hands. 

The end of Jugurtha was one in accordance with the brutal cruelty ofRome, yet it was one which he richly deserved. It was in the month ofJanuary, 104 B. C. , three years after his capture, that Marius enteredRome in triumphal procession, displaying to the people the spoils of hisvictories, while before his car walked his captive in chains. 

The African seemed sunk in stupor as he walked. He was roused by thebrutal mob, who tore off his clothes and plucked the gold rings from hisears. Then he was thrust into the dungeon at the foot of the CapitolineHill. "Hercules, what a cold bath this is!" he exclaimed. There he whohad defied Rome and lorded it over Africa starved to death. A prince ofthe line of Masinissa succeeded him on the throne. 

_THE EXILE AND REVENGE OF MARIUS. _

Marius and Sulla, the heroes of the Jugurthine War, in later years ledin greater wars, in which they gained much fame. They ended theircareers in frightful massacres, in which they gained great infamy. Rome, which had made the world its slaughter-house, was itself turned into aslaughter-house by these cruel and revengeful rivals. 

There was rarely any lack of work for the swords of Rome. While Mariuswas absent in Africa a frightful peril threatened the Roman state. Avast horde of barbarians was sweeping downward from the north. TheGermans of Central Europe had ravaged Switzerland and invaded Gaul. Every army sent against them had been defeated with great slaughter. Italy was in immediate danger of invasion, Rome in imminent peril. Marius was sadly needed, and on his return from Africa was hailed as theonly man who could save the state. 

Instantly he gathered an army and set out for Gaul, Sulla going with himas a subordinate officer. Two years were spent in marches andcounter-marches, and then (B. C. 102) he met the enemy and defeated themwith immense slaughter. Reserving the richest of the spoils, he devotedthe remainder to the gods, and, as he stood in a purple robe, torch inhand, about to apply the flame to the costly funeral pile, horsemendashed at full speed through the open lines of the troops, and announcedthat for a fifth time he had been elected consul of Rome. 

In this war Sulla also showed valor and won fame. But he had grownjealous of the glory of Marius, and left his army to join that of theconsul Catulus, who was being driven backward by another great horde ofbarbarians. Marius, having beaten his own foes, hastened to the reliefof his associate; the flight was stopped, and a battle ensued in whichthe invading army was swept from the face of the earth, and Rome freedfor centuries from danger of barbarian invasion. 

Sulla and Catulus had their share in this victory, but the people gaveMarius the whole honor, called him the third founder of their city (asCamillus had been the second), and gathered in rejoicing multitudes towitness his triumph. 

While this war was going on there was dreadful work at home. The slaveshad, for the second time, broken into insurrection. This servile war wasmainly in Sicily, where thousands of slaves were slain. Of the captives, many were taken to Rome to fight with wild beasts in the arena, but theydisappointed the eager spectators by killing each other. This outbreakonly made slavery at Rome harder and harsher than before. 

Years passed on, and then another war broke out. The Italian allies, whohad helped to make Rome great, claimed rights of citizenship andsuffrage. These were denied, and what is known as the Social War began. Sulla and Marius took part in this conflict, which ended in favor ofRome, though the franchise fought for was in large measure gained. Itwas of little value, however, since all who held it were obliged to goto the city of Rome to vote. 

During these various conflicts the rivalry between Marius and Sulla grewsteadily more declared. The old plebeian, now seventy years of age, wasjealous of the honors which his aristocratic rival had gained in theSocial War, and a spirit of bitter hatred, which was to bear direresults, arose in his heart. 

Events to come were to blow this spark of hatred into a glowing flame. Anew war threatened Rome. Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, in AsiaMinor, was pursuing a career of conquest, and the Roman provinces inAsia were in danger. War was determined on, and Sulla, who had alreadyheld successful command in the East, claimed the command of the newarmy. Marius, old as he was, wanted it, too, and by his influence withthe new citizens of Rome succeeded in defeating Sulla and gaining theappointment of general in the war against Pontus. 

This vote of the tribes precipitated a contest. The Social War was notyet fully ended, and Sulla hastened to the camp where his soldiers werebesieging a Samnite town. It was his purpose to set sail for the Eastbefore he could be superseded. He was too late. Officials from Romereached the camp almost as soon as he, bearing a commission from Mariusto assume the command. It was a critical moment. Sulla must either yieldor inaugurate a civil war. 

He chose the latter. Calling the soldiers together, he told them thathe had been insulted and injured, and that, unless they supported him, they would be left at home, and a new army raised by Marius would obtainthe spoils of the Mithridatic war. Stirred by this appeal to theiravarice, the legions stoned to death the officers sent by Marius, andloudly demanded to be led to Rome. 

Their coming took Marius by surprise, and threw the city intoconsternation. No one had dreamed of such daring and audacity. To lead aRoman army against Rome was unprecedented. The senate sent an embassyasking Sulla to halt till the Fathers could come to some decision. Hepromised to do so, but as soon as the envoys had gone he sent a forcethat seized the Colline Gate and entered the city streets. Here theirprogress was stopped by the people, who hurled tiles and stones upontheir heads from the house-tops. 

The whole army soon followed, and Sulla entered the city with twolegions at his back. The people again opposed their march, but Sullaseized a torch and threatened to burn the city if any hostility wereshown. This ended all opposition, except that made by Marius, whoretreated to the Capitol, where he proclaimed liberty to all slaves whowould join his banner. This did him much more harm than good; hisadherents dispersed; he and his chief supporters were forced to seeksafety in flight. 

And now we have a story of striking interest to tell. It would need thepowers of invention of a romancer to devise a series of adventures asremarkable as those which befell old Marius in his flight. It is one ofthe strangest stories in all the annals of history, a markedillustration of the saying that fact is often stranger than fiction. 

Marius fled to Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, in company withGranius, his son-in-law, and five slaves. He proposed to take ship therefor Africa, where his influence was great. His son followed him by adifferent route, and arrived at Ostia to find that his father had put tosea. There was another vessel about to sail, which the son took, and inwhich he succeeded in reaching Africa. 

The older fugitive had no such good fortune. The elements pronouncedagainst him, and a storm drove the vessel ashore near Circeii. Here theparty wandered in distress along the desolate coast, in imminent dangerof capture, for emissaries of Sulla were scouring the shores of Italy inhis pursuit. Fortunately for the old general, he was recognized by someherdsmen, who warned him that a troop of cavalry was approaching. Notknowing who they were, and fearing their purpose, the fugitives hastilyleft the road and sought shelter in the forest that there came down nearto the coast. 

Here the night was miserably passed, the fugitives suffering for want offood and shelter. When the dawn of the next day broke, their forlornwalk was resumed, there being no enemy in sight. By this time the wholeparty, with the exception of Marius, was greatly depressed. He alonekept up his spirits, telling his followers that he had been six timesconsul of Rome, and that a seventh consulship would yet be his. 

There seemed little hope of such a turn of fortune as the hungryfugitives dragged wearily onward. For two days they kept on, makingabout forty miles of distance. At the end of that time peril of capturecame frightfully near. A body of horsemen was visible at a distance, coming rapidly on. No friendly forest here offered shelter. The onlyhope of escape lay in two merchant vessels, which were moving slowlyclose in shore. 

Calling loudly for aid, Marius and those with him plunged into the waterand swam for these vessels. Granius reached one of them. Marius was soexhausted that he could not swim, and was supported with difficultyabove the water by two slaves till the seamen of the other vessel drewhim on board. 

He had barely reached the deck when the troop of horsemen rode to thewater's edge, and their leader called to the captain of the vessel, telling him that it was the proscribed Marius he had rescued, andbidding him at once to deliver him up. 

What to do the captain did not know. The officer on shore threatened himwith the vengeance of Sulla if he failed to yield the fugitive. Marius, with tears in his eyes, earnestly begged for protection from the captainand crew. The captain wavered in purpose, but finally yielded to Mariusand sailed on. But he did so in doubt and fear, and on reaching themouth of the river Liris he persuaded Marius to go ashore, saying thatthe vessel must lie to till the land-wind rose. The instant the boatreturned the faithless captain sailed away, leaving the aged fugitiveabsolutely alone on the beach. 

Walking wearily to the sorry hut of an old peasant, which stood near, Marius told him who he was, and begged for shelter. The old man hid himin a hole near the river, and covered him with reeds. While he lay therethe horsemen, who had followed the vessel along the shore, came up, andasked the tenant of the hut where Marius was. 

The shivering fugitive, in fear of being betrayed, rose hastily from hishiding-place and dashed into the stream. Some of the horsemen saw him, he was pursued, and, covered with mud and nearly naked, the oldconqueror was dragged from the river, placed on a horse, and carried asa captive to the neighboring town of Miturnæ. Here he was confined inthe house of a woman named Fannia till his fate could be determined. 

A circular letter had been received by the magistrates from the consulsat Rome, ordering them to put Marius to death if he should fall intotheir hands. This was more than they cared to do on their ownresponsibility, and they called a meeting of the town council to decidethe momentous question. The council decided that Marius should die, andsent a Gaulish slave to put him to death. 

It was dark when the executioner entered the house of Fannia. The slave, little relishing the task committed to his hands, entered the room whereMarius lay. All the trembling wretch could see in the darkness were theglaring eyes of the old man fixed fiercely on him, while a deep voicecame from the couch, "Fellow, darest thou slay Caius Marius?"

Throwing down his sword, the Gaul fled in terror from those accusingeyes, crying out, loudly, "I cannot slay Caius Marius!"

The magistrates made no further effort to put their prisoner to death. They managed that he should escape, and he made his way to the island ofIschia, which Granius had already reached. Here a friendly ship tookthem on board, and they sailed for Africa. 

But the perils of the fugitive were not yet at an end. The ship wasforced to stop at Erycina, in Sicily, for water. Here a Roman officialrecognized Marius, fell upon the party with a company of soldiers, andslew sixteen of them. Marius was nearly taken, but managed to escape, the vessel hastily setting sail. He now reached Africa without furtheradventure. 

His son and other friends had arrived earlier, and, encouraging newsbeing told him, he landed near the site of ancient Carthage. The prætor, learning of his presence, and advised of the revolution at Rome, senthim word to quit the province without delay. As the messenger spokeMarius looked at him with silent indignation. 

"What answer shall I take back to the prætor?" asked the man. 

"Tell him, " said the old general, with impressive dignity, "that youhave seen Caius Marius sitting among the ruins of Carthage. "

Meanwhile his son had reached Numidia, where he was outwardly wellreceived by the king, yet held in captivity. He was at length enabledto escape by the aid of the king's daughter, and joined his father. Marius was not further molested. 

Yet it would have been well for the fame of Caius Marius had his lifeended here. He would nave escaped the infamy of his later years, and theflood of blood and vengeance in which his career reached its end. He hadfriends still in Rome. Sulla had made many foes by his capture of thecity. Among the new consuls elected was Cornelius Cinna, who quicklymade trouble for the ruler of Rome. Sulla, finding his power abating, and fearing assassination by friends of Marius, concluded to let thesenate fight its own battles, and shipped his troops for Greece, leavingRome to its own devices, while he occupied himself with fighting itsenemy in the East. 

No sooner had he gone than civil war began. Fighting took place in thestreets of Rome. Cinna moved in the senate that Marius should berestored to his rights. Failing in this, he gathered an army andthreatened his enemies in Rome. 

News of all this soon reached old Marius in Africa. At the head of athousand desperate men he took ship and landed in Etruria. Here heproclaimed liberty to all slaves who would join him, and soon had alarge force. He also gained a small fleet. He and Cinna now joinedforces and marched on Rome. 

The senate, which stood for Sulla, had meanwhile been gathering an armyfor the defence of the city. But few of those ordered from afar reachedthe gates, and of the principal force the greater part deserted toMarius. The city was soon invested on all sides. The ships of Mariuscaptured the corn-vessels from Sicily and Africa. A plague broke out inthe city, which decimated the army of the senate. In the end beleagueredRome was forced to open its gates to a new conqueror. 

All the senate asked for was that Cinna would not permit a generalmassacre. This he promised. But behind his chair, in which he sat instate as consul, stood old Marius, whose face threatened disaster. Hewas dressed in mean attire; his hair and beard hung down rough and long, for neither had been cut since the day he fled from Rome; on his browwas a sullen frown that boded only evil to his foes. 

Evil it was, evil without stint. Rome was treated as a conquered city. The slaves and desperadoes who followed Marius were let loose to plunderat their will. Octavius, the consul who had supported the senate, wasslain in his consular chair. A series of horrible butcheries followed. Marius was bent on dire vengeance, and his enemies fell in multitudes. Followed by a band of ruffians known as the Bardiæi, the remorseless oldman roamed in search of victims through the city streets, and any man ofrank whom he passed without a salute was at once struck dead. 

The senators who had opposed his recall from exile fell first. Othersfollowed in multitudes. Those who had private wrongs to revenge followedthe example of their chief. The slaves of the army killed at will allwhom they wished to plunder. So great became the licentious outrages ofthese slaves that in the end Cinna, who had taken no part in themassacres, fell upon them with a body of troops and slew severalthousands. This reprisal in some measure restored order in Rome. 

Sulla, meanwhile, was winning victories in the East, and the news ofthem somewhat disturbed the ruthless conquerors. But for the presentthey were absolute, and the saturnalia of blood went on. It ended atlength in the death of Marius. 

Since his return he had given himself to wine and riotous living. This, after the privations and hardships he had recently suffered, sapped hisiron constitution. He was elected to the seventh consulship, which hehad predicted while wandering as a fugitive on the south Italian shores. But he fell now into an inflammatory fever, and in two weeks after hiselection he ceased to breathe. Great and successful soldier as he hadbeen, his late conduct had won him wide-spread detestation, and he diedhated by his enemies and feared even by his friends. 

_THE PROSCRIPTION OF SULLA. _

While Marius and his friends were ruling and murdering in Rome, Sulla, their bitter enemy, was commanding and conquering in the East, bidinghis time for revenge. He drove the Asiatic foe out of Greece, taking andpillaging Athens as an episode. He carried the war into Asia, forcedMithridates to sue for peace, and exacted enormous sums (more than onehundred million dollars in our money) from the rich cities of the East. Then, after giving his soldiers a winter's rest in Asia, he turned hisface towards Rome, writing to the senate that he was coming, and that heintended to take revenge on his enemies. 

It was now the year 83 B. C. Three years had passed since the death ofMarius. During the interval the party of the plebeians had been at thehead of affairs. Now Sulla, the aristocrat, was coming to call them to astern account, and they trembled in anticipation. They rememberedvividly the Marian carnival of blood. What retribution would hismerciless rival exact?

Cinna, who had most to fear, proposed to meet the conqueror in thefield. But his soldiers were not in the mood to fight, and settled thequestion by murdering their commander. When spring was well advanced, Sulla left Asia, and in sixteen hundred ships transported his men toItaly, landing at the port of Brundusium. 

On the 6th of July, shortly after his landing, an event occurred thatthrew all Rome into consternation. The venerable buildings of theCapitol took fire and were burned to the ground, the cherished Sibyllinebooks perishing in the flames. Such a disaster seemed to many Romans afatal prognostic. The gods were surely against them, and all things wereat risk. 

Onward marched Sulla, opposed by a much greater army collected by hisopponents. But he led the veterans of the Mithridatic War, and in theranks of his opponents no man of equal ability appeared. Battle afterbattle was fought, Sulla steadily advancing. At length an army ofSamnites, raised to defend the Marian cause, marched on Rome. CaiusPontius, their commander, was bent on terribly avenging the sufferingsof his people on that great city. 

"Rome's last day, " he said to his soldiers, "is come. The city must beannihilated. The wolves that have so long preyed upon Italy will nevercease from troubling till their lair is utterly destroyed. "

Rome was in despair, for all seemed at an end. The Samnites had notforgotten a former Pontius, who had sent a Roman army under the CaudineForks, and had been cruelly murdered in the Capitol They thundered onthe Colline Gate. But at that critical moment a large body of cavalryappeared and charged the foe. It was the vanguard of Sulla's army, marching in haste to the relief of Rome. 

A fierce battle ensued. Sulla fought gallantly. He rode a white horse, and was the mark of every javelin. But despite his efforts his men wereforced back against the wall, and when night came to their relief itlooked as if nothing remained for them but to sell their lives as dearlyas possible the next morning. 

But during the night Sulla received favorable news. Crassus, whocommanded his right wing, had completely defeated a detachment of theMarian army. With quick decision, Sulla marched during the night roundthe enemy's camp, joined Crassus, and at day-break attacked the foe. 

The battle that ensued was a terrible one. Fifty thousand men fell oneach side. Pontius and other Marian leaders were slain. In the end Sullatriumphed, taking eight thousand prisoners, of whom six thousand wereSamnites. The latter were, by order of the victor, ruthlessly butcheredin cold blood. 

This was but the prelude to an equally ruthless but more protractedbutchery. Sulla was at last lord of Rome, as absolute in power as anyemperor of later days. In fact, he had himself appointed dictator, anoffice which had vanished more than a century before, and which raisedhim above the law. He announced that he would give a better governmentto Rome, but to do so he must first rid that city of its enemies. 

Marius, whom Sulla hated with intense bitterness, had escaped him bydeath. By his orders the bones of the old general were torn from theirtomb near the Anio and flung into that stream. The son of Marius hadslain himself to prevent being taken. His head was brought to Sulla atRome, who gazed on the youthful face with grim satisfaction, saying, "Those who take the helm must first serve at the oar. " As for himself, his fortune was now accomplished, he said, and henceforth he should beknown as Felix. 

The cruel work which Sulla had promised immediately began. Adherents ofthe popular party were slaughtered daily and hourly at Rome. Some whohad taken no part in the late war were slain. No man knew if he wassafe. Some of the senators asked that the names of the guilty should bemade known, that the innocent might be relieved from uncertainty. Theproposition hit with Sulla's humor. He ordered that a list of thosedoomed to death should be made out and published. This was called aProscription. 

But the uncertainty continued as great as ever. The list contained buteighty names. It was quickly followed by another containing one hundredand twenty. Day after day new lists of the doomed were issued. To makedeath sure, a reward of two talents was promised any one who should killa proscribed man, --even if the killer were his son or his slave. Thosewho in any way aided the proscribed became themselves doomed to death. 

Men who envied others their property managed to have their names put onthe list. A partisan of Sulla was exulting over the doomed, when hiseye fell on his own name in the list. He hastily fled, and thebystanders, judging the cause, followed and cut him down. Catiline, whoafterwards became notorious in Roman history, murdered his own brother, and to legalize the murder had the name of his victim placed on thelist. 

How many were murdered we do not know. Probably little less than threethousand in Rome. The stream of murder flowed to other cities. Severalof these defied the conqueror, but were taken one by one and theirdefenders slain. To all cities which had taken part with the Marians theproscription made its way. Of the total number slain during this reignof terror no record exists, but the deliberate butchery of Sulla wentfar beyond the ferocious but temporary slaughter of Marius. 

Murder was followed by confiscation. Sulla ordered that the property ofthe slain should be sold at auction and the proceeds put in thetreasury. But the favorites of the dictator were the chief bidders, theproperty was sold at a tithe of its value, and the unworthy anddissolute obtained the lion's share of the spoil. 

During this period of murder and confiscation we first hear the names ofa number of afterwards famous Romans. Catiline we have named. Pompeytook part in the war on Sulla's side, was victorious in Sicily andAfrica, and on his return was hailed by his chief with the title ofPompey the Great. Another still more famous personage was Julius Cæsar. Sulla had ordered that all persons connected by marriage with theMarian party should divorce their wives. Pompey obeyed. Cæsar, who was anephew of Marius and had married the daughter of Cinna, boldly refused. He was then a youth of nineteen. His boldness would have brought himdeath had not powerful friends asked for his life. 

"You know not what you ask, " said Sulla; "that profligate boy will bemore dangerous than many Mariuses. "

Cæsar, not trusting Sulla's doubtful humor, escaped from Rome, and hidin the depths of the Sabine mountains, awaiting a time when the streetsof the capital city would be safer for those who dared speak theirminds. 

Another young man of rising fame showed little less boldness. This wasCicero, who had just returned to Rome from his studies in Greece. Heventured to defend Roscius of Ameria against an accusation of murdermade by Chrysogonus, a prime favorite of Sulla. Cicero lashed thefavorite vigorously, and won a verdict for his client. But he found itadvisable to leave Rome immediately and resume his studies at Rhodes. 

Sulla ended his work by organizing a new senate and making a new code oflaws. Three hundred new members were added to the senate, and the lawsof Rome were brought largely back to the state in which they had beenbefore the Gracchi. 

This done, to the utter surprise of the people he laid down his powerand retired from Rome, within whose streets he never again set foot. Hehad no occasion for fear. He had scattered his veterans throughoutItaly on confiscated estates, and knew that he could trust to theirsupport. Before his departure he gave a feast of costly meats and richwines to the Roman commons, in such profusion that vast quantities thatcould not be eaten were cast into the Tiber. Then he dismissed his armedattendants, and walked on foot to his house, through a multitude of whommany had ample reason to strike him down. 

He now retired to his villa near Puteoli, on the Bay of Naples, with thepurpose of enjoying that life of voluptuous ease which he craved morethan power and distinction. Here he spent the brief remainder of hislife in nocturnal orgies and literary converse, completing his"Memoirs, " in which he told, in exaggerated phrase, the story of hislife and exploits. 

He lived but about a year. His excesses brought on a complication ofdisorders, which ended, we are told, in a loathsome disease. The senatevoted him a gorgeous funeral, after which his body was burned on theCampus Martius, that no future tyrant could treat his remains as he haddone those of his great rival Marius. 

_THE REVOLT OF THE GLADIATORS. _

At the beginning of the first Punic War, or war with Carthage, a newform of entertainment was introduced into Rome. This was thegladiatorial show, the fights of armed men in the arena, the first ofwhich was given in the year 264 B. C. , at the funeral of D. JuniusBrutus. These exhibitions were long confined to funeral occasions, moneybeing frequently left for this purpose in wills, but they graduallyextended to other occasions, and finally became the choice amusement ofthe brutal Roman mob. The gladiators were divided into several classes, in accordance with their particular weapons and modes of fighting, andgreat pains were taken to instruct them in the use of their specialarms. But in the period that followed the death of Sulla Rome was tohave a gladiatorial exhibition of a different sort. 

In the city of Capua was a school of gladiators, kept by a man namedLentulus. It was his practice to hire out his trained pupils to noblesfor battles in the arena during public festivals. His school was a largeone, and included in its numbers a Thracian named Spartacus, who hadbeen taken prisoner while leading his countrymen against the Romans, andwas to be punished for his presumption by making sport for hisconquerors. 

But Spartacus had other and nobler aims. He formed a plot of flight tofreedom in which two hundred of his fellows joined, though onlyseventy-eight succeeded in making their escape. These men, armed merelywith the knives and spits which they had seized as they fled, made theirway to the neighboring mountains, and sought a refuge in the crater ofMount Vesuvius. It must be borne in mind that this mountain, in thatyear of 73 B. C. , was silent and seemingly extinct, though before anothercentury passed it was to awake to vital activity. It was only biding itstime in slumber. 

It was better to die on the open field than in the amphitheatre, arguedSpartacus, and his followers agreed with him. Their position in thecrater was a strong one, and the news of their revolt soon brought thema multitude of allies, --slaves and outlaws of every kind. TheseSpartacus organized and drilled, supplying them with officers from thegladiators, mostly old soldiers, and placing them under rigiddiscipline. It was liberty he wanted, not rapine, and he did his utmostto restrain his lawless followers from acts of violence. 

Pompey, the chief Roman general of that day, was then absent in Spain, fighting with a remnant of the Marian forces. Two Roman prætors ledtheir forces against the gladiators, but were driven back with loss, andthe army of Spartacus swelled day by day. The wild herdsmen of Apuliajoined him in large numbers. They were slaves to their lords, whom theyhated bitterly, and here was an opening for freedom and revenge. 

It was soon evident that Rome had on its hands the greatest and mostdangerous of its servile wars. Spartacus was brave and prudent, andpossessed the qualities of an able leader. Unfortunately for him, he ledan unmanageable host. In the next year both the consuls took the fieldagainst him. By this time his army had swelled to more than one hundredthousand men, and with these he pushed his way northward through thepasses of the Apennines. But now insubordination appeared. Crixus, oneof his lieutenants, ambitious of independent command, led off a largedivision of the army, chiefly Germans. He was quickly punished for histemerity, being surprised and slain with the whole of his force. 

Spartacus, wise enough to know that he could not long hold out againstthe whole power of Rome, kept on northward, hoping to pass the Alps andfind a place of refuge remote from the stronghold of his foes. Both theconsuls attacked him in his march, and both were defeated, while heretaliated on Rome by forcing his prisoners to fight as gladiators inmemory of the slain Crixus. 

Reaching the provinces of the north, his diminished force was repulsedby Crassus, one of the richest men of Rome, who had taken the field asprætor. Spartacus would still have fought his way towards the Alps butfor his followers, whose impatient thirst for rapine forced him to marchsouthward again. 

Every Roman force that assailed him on this march was hurled back indefeat. He even meditated an attack on Rome itself, but relinquishedthis plan as too desperate, and instead employed his men in collectingarms and treasure from the cities of central and southern Italy. Discipline was almost at an end. The wild horde of slaves and outlawswere beyond any strict military control. So great and general were theirravages that in a later day the poet Horace promised his friend a jar ofwine made in the Social War, "if he could find one that had escaped theravages of roaming Spartacus. "

In the year 71 B. C. The most vigorous efforts were made to put down thisdangerous revolt. Pompey was still in Spain. The only man at home of anymilitary reputation was the prætor Crassus, who had amassed an enormousfortune by buying up property at famine prices during the Proscriptionof Sulla, and in speculative measures since. 

He was given full command, took the field with a large army, restoreddiscipline to the beaten bands of the consuls by cruel and rigorousmeasures, and assailed Spartacus in Calabria, where he was seeking torekindle the Servile War, or slave outbreak, in Sicily. He had evenengaged with pirate captains to transport a part of his force to Sicily, but the freebooters took the money and sailed away without the men. 

And now began a struggle for life and death. Spartacus was in thenarrowest part of the foot of Southern Italy. Crassus determined to keephim there by building strong lines of intrenchment across the neck ofland. Spartacus attacked his works twice in one day, but each time wasrepulsed with great slaughter. But he defended himself vigorously. 

Pompey was now returning from Spain. Crassus, not caring to be robbed ofthe results of his labors, determined to assault Spartacus in his camp. But before he could do so the daring gladiator attacked his lines again, forced his way through, and marched for Brundusium, where he hoped tofind ships that would convey him and his men from Italy. 

As it happened, a large body of Roman veterans, returning fromMacedonia, had just reached Brundusium, and undertook its defence. Foiled in his purpose, Spartacus turned upon the pursuing army ofCrassus, like a wolf at bay, and attacked it with the energy ofdesperation. The battle that ensued was contested with the fiercestcourage. Spartacus and his men were fighting for their lives, and theresult continued doubtful till the brave gladiator was wounded in thethigh by a javelin. Falling on his knee, he fought with the courage of ahero until, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead. 

His death decided the conflict. Most of his followers were slain on thefield. A strong body escaped to the mountains, but these were pursued, and many fell. Five thousand of them made their way to the north ofItaly, where they were met by Pompey, on his return from Spain, andslaughtered to a man. 

Crassus took six thousand prisoners, and these he disposed of in thecruel Roman way of dealing with revolted slaves, hanging or crucifyingthe whole of them along the road between Rome and Capua. 

Thus ended far the most important outbreak of Roman gladiators andslaves. The south of Italy suffered horribly from its ravages, but notthrough any act of Spartacus, who throughout showed a moderation equalto his courage and military ability. Had it not been for the lawlesscharacter of his followers his career might have had a very differentending, for he had shown himself a commander of rare ability andunconquerable courage. 

_CÆSAR AND THE PIRATES. _

We have spoken of the pirates who agreed to convey the forces ofSpartacus from Italy to Sicily, but faithlessly sailed away with hismoney and without his men. From times immemorial the Mediterranean hadbeen ravaged by pirate fleets, which made the inlets of Asia Minor andthe isles of the Archipelago their places of shelter, whence they dashedout on rapid raids, and within which they vanished when attacked. 

This piracy reached its highest power during and after the Social andCivil Wars of Rome, the outlaws taking prompt advantage of thedistractions of the times, and gaining a strength and audacity unknownbefore. Their chief places of refuge were in the coast districts ofCilicia and Pisidia, in Asia Minor, while in the mountain valleys whichled down from Taurus to that coast they had strongholds difficult ofaccess, and enabling them to defy attack by land. 

They were now aided by Mithridates, who supplied them with money andencouraged their raids. So great became their audacity that they carriedoff important personages from the coast of Italy, among them twoprætors, whom they held to ransom. They ravaged all unguarded shores, and are said to have captured in all four hundred important towns. Theriches gained in these raids were displayed with the ostentation ofconquerors. The sails of their ships were dyed with that costly Tyrianpurple which at a later date was reserved for the robes of emperors;their oars were inlaid with silver, and their pennants glittered withgold. As for the merchant fleets of Rome, they made their journeys underconstant risk, and there was danger, if the pirates were not suppressed, that they would cut off the entire grain-supply from Africa and Sicily. 

The most interesting story told in connection with these marauders isconnected with the youthful days of Julius Cæsar, afterwards so great aman in Rome. 

In the year 76 B. C. Cæsar, then a young man of twenty-four, andseemingly given over to mere enjoyment of life, with no indications ofpolitical aspiration, was on his way to the island of Rhodes, where hewished to perfect himself in oratory in the famous school of ApolloniusMelo, in which Cicero, a few years before, had gained instruction in theart. Cicero had taught Rome the full power of oratory, and Cæsar, whowas no mean orator by nature, and recognized the usefulness of the art, naturally sought instruction from Cicero's teacher. 

He was travelling as a gentleman of rank, but on his way was takenprisoner by pirates, who, deeming him a person of great distinction, held him at a high ransom. For six weeks Cæsar remained in their hands, waiting until his ransom should be paid. He was in no respect downcastby his misfortune, but took part freely in the games and pastimes ofthe pirates, and, according to Plutarch, treated them with such disdainthat whenever their noise disturbed his sleep he sent orders to them tokeep silence. In his familiar conversations with the chiefs he plainlytold them that he would one day crucify them all. Doubtless they laughedheartily at this pleasantry, as they deemed it, but they were to find ita grim sort of jest. 

Cæsar was released at last, the ransom paid amounting to about fiftythousand dollars. He lost not a moment in carrying out his threat. Obtaining a fleet of Milesian vessels, he sailed immediately to theisland in which he had been held captive, and descended upon the piratesso suddenly that he took them prisoners while they were engaged individing their plunder. Carrying them to Pergamus, he handed them overto the civil authorities, by whom his promise of crucifying them all wasduly carried out. Then he went to Rhodes, and spent two years in thestudy of elocution. He had proved himself an awkward kind of prey forpirates. 

These worthies continued their depredations, and became at length soannoying that extraordinary measures were taken for their suppression. Pompey, then the most powerful man in Rome, was given absolute controlover the Mediterranean. This was not done without opposition, for it wasfeared that he aspired to kingly rule. "You aspire to be Romulus; bewareof the fate of Romulus, " said some of the opposing senators. 

Despite opposition the power was given him, and he used it withremarkable results. A large fleet was at once got ready and put to sea, confining its operations at first to the west of the Mediterranean, anddriving the piratical fleets towards their lurking-places in the east. Land troops meanwhile guarded the coasts. In the brief space of fortydays he reported to the senate that the whole sea west of Greece wascleared of pirates. 

Then he sailed for the Archipelago, swept its inlets, spread his shipseverywhere, and drove the foe towards Cilicia. Here they gathered theirfleet and gave him battle, but suffered a total defeat. A surrenderfollowed, to which he won them over by lenient terms. In three monthsfrom the day he began his work the war was ended, and the pirates whohad so long troubled the republic of Rome had retired from business. 

_CÆSAR AND POMPEY. _

There were three leaders in Rome, Pompey, whom Sulla had named theGreat, Crassus, the rich, and Cæsar, the shrewd and wise. Two of thesehad reached their utmost height. For Pompey there was to be no moregreatness, for Crassus no more riches. But Cæsar was the coming man ofRome. After a youth given to profligate pleasures, in which he spentmoney as fast as Crassus collected it, and accumulated debt more rapidlythan Pompey accumulated fame, the innate powers of the man began todeclare themselves. He studied oratory and made his mark in the RomanForum; he studied the political situation, and step by step made himselfa power among men. He was shrewd enough to cultivate Pompey, then theRoman favorite, and brought himself into closer relations with him bymarrying his relative. Steadily he grew into public favor and respect, and laid his hands on the reins of control. 

There was a fourth man of prominence, Cicero, the great scholar, philosopher, and orator. He prosecuted Verres, who, as governor ofSicily, had committed frightful excesses, and drove him from Rome. Heprosecuted Catiline, who had made a conspiracy to seize the government, and even to burn Rome. The conspirators were foiled and Catiline killed. But Cicero, earnest and eloquent as he was, lacked manliness andcourage, and was driven into exile by his enemies. 

There remained the three leaders, Pompey, Cæsar, and Crassus, and thesethree made a secret compact to control the government, forming whatbecame known as a _triumvirate_, or three man power. Pompey marriedJulia, the young and beautiful daughter of Cæsar, and the two seemedvery closely united. 

Cæsar was elected consul, and in this position won public favor byproposing some highly popular laws. After his year as consul he was madegovernor of Gaul, and now began an extraordinary career. The man who hadby turns shown himself a dissolute spendthrift, an orator, and apolitical leader, suddenly developed a new power, and proved himself oneof the greatest soldiers the world has ever known. 

Gaul, as then known, had two divisions, --Cisalpine Gaul, or the Gaulishsettlements in Northern Italy; and Transalpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond theAlps, including the present countries of France and Switzerland. In thelatter country Rome possessed only a narrow strip of land, then known asthe Province, since then known as the country of Provence. 

From this centre Cæsar, with the small army under his command, consisting of three legions, entered upon a career of conquest whichastonished Rome and drew upon him the eyes of the civilized world. Hehad hardly been appointed when he received word that the Helvetiantribes of Switzerland were advancing on Geneva, the northern outpost ofthe Province, with a view of invading the West. He hastened thither, metand defeated them, killed a vast multitude, and drove the remnant backto their own country. Then, invited by some northern tribes, he attackeda great German band which had invaded Northern Gaul, and defeated themso utterly that few escaped across the Rhine. From that point he madehis way into and conquered Belgium. In a year's time he had vastlyextended the Roman dominion in the West. 

For nine years this career of conquest continued. The barbarian Gaulsproved fierce and valiant soldiers, but at the end of that time they hadbeen completely subdued and made passive subjects of Rome. Cæsar evencrossed the sea into Britain, and look the first step towards theconquest of that island, of which Rome had barely heard before. 

During this career of conquest many hundreds of thousands of men wereslain. But, then, Cæsar was victorious and Rome triumphant, and whatmattered it if a million or two of barbarians were sacrificed to thedemon of conquest? It mattered little to Rome, in which great citybarbarian life was scarcely worth a second thought. It mattered littleto Cæsar, who, like all great conquerors, was quite willing to mount topower on a ladder of human lives. 

Meanwhile what were Cæsar's partners in the Triumvirate doing? WhenCæsar was given the province of Gaul, Pompey was made governor ofSpain, and Crassus of Syria. Crassus, who had gained some military fameby overcoming Spartacus the gladiator, wished to gain more, and sailedfor Asia, where he stirred up a war with distant Parthia. That was theend of Crassus. He marched into the desert of Mesopotamia, and left hisbody on the sands. His head was sent to Orodes, the Parthian king, whoordered molten gold to be poured into his mouth, --a ghastly commentaryon his thirst for wealth. 

Pompey left Spain to take care of itself, and remained in Rome, where hesought to add to his popularity by building a great stone theatre, largeenough to hold forty thousand people, where for many days he amused thepeople with plays and games. Here, for the first time, a rhinoceros wasshown. Eighteen elephants were killed by Libyan hunters, and fivehundred lions were slain, while hosts of gladiators fought for life andhonor. 

While thus seeking popular favor, Pompey was secretly working againstthe interests of Cæsar, of whose fame he had grown jealous. His wifeJulia died, and he joined his strength with that of the aristocrats;while Cæsar, a nephew of old Marius, was looked upon as a leader of theparty of the people. 

Pompey's power and influence over the senate increased until he wasvirtually dictator in Rome. Cæsar's ten years' governorship in Gaulwould expire on the 1st of January, 49 B. C. , and it was resolved byPompey and the senate to deprive him of the command of the army. ButCæsar was not the man to be dealt with in this summary manner. Hiscareer of conquest ended, he entered his province of Cisalpine Gaul, orNorthern Italy, where he was received as a great hero and conqueror. From here he sent secret agents to Rome, bribed with large sums a numberof important persons, and took other steps to guard his interests. 

Meanwhile the senate tried to disarm Cæsar by unfair means. They had thepower to shorten or lengthen the year as they pleased, and announcedthat that year would end on November 12, and that Cæsar must resign hisauthority on the 13th. Curio, a tribune of Rome and Cæsar's agent, saidthat it was only fair that Pompey also should give up the command of thearmy which he had near Rome. This he refused to do, and Curio publiclydeclared that he was trying to make himself a tyrant. 

Finally the senate decreed that each general should give up one legion, to be used in a war with the Parthians. There was no such war, but itwas pretended that there soon would be. Pompey agreed, but he calledupon Cæsar to send him back a legion which he had lent him three yearsbefore. Cæsar did not hesitate to do so: he sent Pompey's legion and hisown; but he took care to win the soldiers by giving each a valuablepresent as he went away. These legions were not sent to Asia, but toCapua. The senate wanted them for use nearer than Parthia. 

Cæsar was then at Ravenna, a sea-side city on the southern limit of hisprovince. South of it flowed a little stream called the Rubicon, whichformed his border-line. Here he took a bold step. He sent a letter tothe senate, offering to give up his command if Pompey would do the same. A violent debate followed in the senate, and a decree was passed thatunless Cæsar laid down his command by a certain day he should bedeclared an outlaw and enemy of Rome. At the same time the two consulswere made dictators, and the two tribunes who favored Cæsar--one of themthe afterwards famous Marc Antony--fled for safety from Rome. 

The decree of the senate was equivalent to a declaration of war. On theone side was Pompey, proud, over-confident, and unprepared. On the otherwas Cæsar, knowing his strength, satisfied in the power of the money hehad so freely distributed, and sure of his men. He called his soldierstogether and asked if they would support him. They answered that theywould follow wherever he led. At once he marched for the Rubicon, thelimit of his province, to cross which stream meant an invasion of Italyand civil war. 

Plutarch tells us that he halted here and deeply meditated, troubled bythe thought that to cross that stream meant the death of thousands ofhis countrymen. After a period of such meditation, he cried aloud, "Thedie is cast; let us go where the gods and the injustice of our foesdirect!" and, spurring his horse forward, he plunged into the stream. 

This story, which has been effectively used by a great epic poet ofRome, probably relates what never happened. From all we know of Cæsar, the question of bloodshed in attaining the aims of his ambition did notgreatly trouble his mind. Yet the story has taken hold, and "to crossthe Rubicon" has become a proverb, signifying the taking of a step ofmomentous importance. 

Cæsar, after the legions sent the senate, had but a single legion leftwith him. He sent orders to others to join him with all haste, but theywere distant. As for Pompey, knowing and despising the weakness of hisrival, he had made no preparations. He had Cæsar's two legions at Capuaand one of his own at Rome, while thousands of Sulla's veterans weresettled in the country round. "I have but to stamp my foot, " he said, "and armed men will start from the soil of Italy. "

He did not stamp, or, if he did, the armed men did not start. Cæsarmarched southward with his accustomed rapidity. Town after town openedits gates to him. Labienus, one of his principal officers, deserted toPompey. Cæsar showed his contempt by sending his baggage after him. Twolegions from Gaul having reached him, he pushed more boldly still to thesouth. The cities taken were treated as friends; there was no pillage, no violence. Everywhere Cæsar won golden opinions by his humanity. 

Meanwhile Pompey's armed men came not; his rival was rapidlyapproaching; he and his party of the senate fled from Rome. They reachedBrundusium, where Cæsar with six legions quickly appeared. The town wasstrong, and Pompey took his time to embark his men and sail from Italy. Disappointed of his prey, Cæsar turned back, and entered Rome on April1, now full lord and master of Italy and its capital city. In thetreasury of that city was a sacred hoard of money, which had been setaside since the invasion of the Gauls, centuries before. The peoplevoted this money for his use. There was no more danger from the Gauls, it was said, for they had all become subjects of Rome. Yet the keeper ofthe treasury refused to produce the keys, and when Cæsar ordered thedoors to be broken open, tried to bar his passage into the sacredchamber. 

"Stand aside, young man, " said Cæsar, with stern dignity; "it is easierfor me to do than to say. "

Cæsar was not the man to rest while an enemy was at large. Pompey hadgone to the East. There was no fleet with which to follow him; and inSpain Pompey had an army of veterans, who might enter Italy as soon ashe left it. These must first be dealt with. 

This did not delay him long. Before the year closed all Spain was his. Most of the soldiers of Pompey joined his army. Those who did not weredismissed unharmed. Everywhere he showed the greatest leniency, andeverywhere won friends. On his return to Rome he gained new friends bypassing laws relieving debtors and restoring their civil rights to thechildren of Sulla's victims. 

He remained in Rome only eleven days, and then sailed for Greece, wherePompey had gathered a large army. It was January 4, 48 B. C. , when hesailed. On June 6 of the same year was fought, at Pharsalia, inThessaly, a great battle which decided the fate of the Roman world. 

Pompey's army consisted of about forty-four thousand men. Cæsar had buthalf as many. But his men were all veterans; many of those of Pompeywere new levies, collected in Asia and Macedonia. The battle was fierceand desperate. During its course the cavalry of Pompey attacked Cæsar'sweak troops and drove them back. The infantry advanced to their support, and struck straight at the faces of the foe. Plutarch tells us that thiscavalry was made up of young Romans, of the aristocratic class and proudof their beauty, and that the order was given to Cæsar's soldiers tospoil their beauty for them. But this story, like many told by Plutarch, lacks proof. 

Whatever was the cause, the cavalry were broken and fled in disorder. Cæsar's reserve force now attacked Pompey's worn troops, who gave wayeverywhere. Cæsar ordered that all Romans should be spared, and only theAsiatics pursued. The legions, hearing of this, ceased to resist. Theforeign soldiers fled, after great slaughter. Pompey rode hastily fromthe field. 

The camp was taken. The booty captured was immense. But Cæsar would notlet his soldiers rest or plunder till they had completed their work. This proved easy; all the Romans submitted; the Asiatics fled. Pompeyput to sea, where he had still a powerful fleet. Africa was his, and hedetermined to take refuge in Egypt. It proved that he had enemies there. A small boat was sent off to bring him ashore. Among those on board wasan officer named Septimius, who had served under Pompey in the war withthe pirates. 

Pompey recognized his old officer, and entered the boat alone, his wifeand friends watching from the vessel as he was rowed ashore. On thebeach a number of persons were collected, as if to receive him withhonor. The boat stopped. Pompey took the hand of the person next him toassist him to rise. As he did so Septimius, who stood behind, struck himwith his sword. Pompey, finding that he was among enemies, made noresistance, and the next blow laid him low in death. His assassins cutoff his head and left his body on the beach. Here one of his freedmenand an old soldier of his army broke up a fishing-boat and made him arude funeral pile. Such were the obsequies of the one-time master of theworld. 

The battle of Pharsalia practically ended the struggle that made Cæsarlord of Rome. Some more fighting was necessary. Africa was still inarms. But a few short campaigns sufficed to bring it to terms, while acampaign against a son of Mithridates ended in five days, Cæsar'svictory being announced to the senate in three short words, "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). Then he returned to Rome, where heshed not a drop of the blood of his enemies, though that of gladiatorsand wild animals was freely spilled in the gorgeous games and festivalswith which he amused the sovereign people. 

_THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR. _

The republic of Rome was at an end. The army had become the power, andthe will of the head of the army was the law, of the state. Cæsarcelebrated his victories with grand triumphs; but he celebrated themmore notably still by a clemency that signified his innate nobility ofcharacter. Instead of dyeing the streets of Rome with blood, as Mariusand Sulla had done before him, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and hisrise to power was not signalized by the slaughter of one of his foes. 

[Illustration: THE ASSASSINATION OF CÆSAR. ]

He signalized it, on the contrary, by an activity in civil reform asmarked as had been his energy in war. The title and privilege of Romancitizenship had so far been confined to Italians. He extended it to manyparts of Gaul and Spain. He formed plans to drain the Pontine marshes, to make a survey and map of the empire, to form a code of laws, andother great works, which he did not live to fulfil. Of all his reforms, the best known is the revision of the Calendar. Before his time theRoman year was three hundred and fifty-five days long, an extra monthbeing occasionally added, so as to regain the lost days. But this wasvery irregularly done, and the civil year had got to be far away fromthe solar year. To correct this Cæsar was obliged to add ninety days tothe year 46 B. C. , which was therefore given the unprecedented length offour hundred and forty-five days. He ordered that the year in futureshould be three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days in length, achange which brought it very nearly, but not quite, to the true length. A new reform was made in 1582, by Pope Gregory XIII. , which made thecivil and solar years almost exactly agree. 

Cæsar did not live to see his reforms consummated. He was murdered, perhaps because he had refused to murder. In a few months after he hadbrought the civil war to an end he fell the victim of assassins. Thestory of his death is famous in Roman history, and must here be told. 

After his triumphs Cæsar, who had been dictator twice before, was nameddictator for the term of ten years. He was also made censor for threeyears. These offices gave him such unlimited power that he was declaredabsolute master of the lives and fortunes of the citizens and subjectsof Rome. Imperator men called him, a term we translate emperor, andafter his return from Spain, where he overthrew the last army of hisfoes, the senate named him dictator and imperator for life. 

These high honors were not sufficient for Cæsar's ambition. He wished tobe made king. He had no son of his own, but desired to make his powerhereditary, and chose his grandnephew Octavius as his heir. But he wasto find the people resolutely bent on having no king over Rome. 

To try their temper some of his friends placed a crown on his statue inthe Forum. Two of the tribunes tore it off, and the crowd loudlyapplauded. Later, at the festival of the Alban Mount, some voices in thecrowd hailed him as king. But the mutterings of the multitude grew soloud, that he quickly cried, "I am no king, but Cæsar. "

At the feast of the Lupercalia, on February 15, he was approached byMarc Antony, as he sat in his golden chair, and offered an embroideredband, such as the sovereigns of Asia wore on their heads. The crowdfailed to applaud, and Cæsar pushed it aside. Then the multitude brokeout in a roar of applause. Again and again he rejected the glitteringbauble, and again the people broke into loud cries of approval. It wasevident that they would have no king. At a later date it was moved inthe senate that Cæsar should be king in the provinces; but he diedbefore this decree could be put in effect. 

There was discontent at Rome. Even the clemency of Cæsar had made himenemies, for there were many who hoped to profit by proscription. Hisjustice made foes among those who wished to grow rich through extortionand oppression. He secluded himself while engaged on his reforms, andthis lost him popularity. A conspiracy was organized against him by asoldier named Caius Cassius and others of the discontented. For leaderthey selected Marcus Junius Brutus, who believed himself a descendant ofthe Brutus of old, and was won to their plot by being told that, whilehis great ancestor had expelled the last king of Rome, he was restingcontent under the rule of a new king. 

Brutus, at length convinced that Cæsar was seeking to overthrow theRoman republic, and that patriotism required him to emulate the famousBrutus of old, joined the conspiracy, which now included more than sixtypersons, most of whom had received benefits and honors from the man theywished to kill. But no considerations of gratitude prevailed; theydetermined on Cæsar's death; and the meeting of the senate called forthe Ides of March (March 15) was fixed for the time and place of theprojected murder. 

The morning of that day seemed full of omens and warnings. The secretwas oozing out. Cæsar received more than one intimation of impendingdanger. A soothsayer had even bidden him to "beware of the Ides ofMarch. " During the preceding night his wife was so disturbed by dreamsthat in the morning she begged him not to go that day to the senate, asshe was sure some peril was at hand. Her words failed to trouble Cæsar'sresolute mind, but to quiet her apprehensions he agreed not to go, anddirected Marc Antony to preside over the senate in his stead. 

When this word was brought to the assembled senate the conspirators werein despair. Their secret was known to too many to remain a secret long. Even a day's delay might be fatal. An hour might put Cæsar on his guard. What was to be done? Unless their victim could be brought to the senatechamber all would be lost. 

Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators who had been favored by Cæsar'sbounty, went hastily to his house, and, telling him that the senateproposed that day to make him king of the provinces, bade him not toyield to such idle matters as auguries and dreams, but show himselfabove any such superstitious weakness. These cunning arguments inducedCæsar to change his mind, and he called for his litter and was carriedforth. 

On his way to the senate new intimations of danger came to him. A slavehad in some way discovered the conspiracy, and tried to force himselfthrough the crowd to the dictator's litter, but was driven back by thethrong. Another informant was more fortunate. A Greek philosopher, Artemidorus by name, had also discovered the conspiracy, and succeededin reaching Cæsar's side. He thrust into his hand a roll of papercontaining a full account of the impending peril. But the star of Cæsarthat day was against him. Thinking the roll to contain a petition ofsome sort, he laid it in the litter by his side, to examine at a moreconvenient time. And thus he went on to his death, despite all thewarnings sent him by the fates. 

The conspirators meanwhile were far from easy in mind. There were signsamong them that their plot had leaked out. Casca, one of their number, was accosted by a friend, "Ah, Casca, Brutus has told me your secret. "The conspirator started in alarm, but was relieved by the next words, "Where will you find money for the expenses of the ædileship?" The manevidently referred to an expected office. 

Another senator, Popillius Lænas, hit the mark closer. "You have mygood wishes; but what you do, do quickly, " he said to Brutus andCassius. 

The alarm caused by his words was doubled when he stepped up to Cæsar, on his entrance to the chamber, and began to whisper in his ear. Cassiuswas so terrified that he grasped his dagger with the thought of killinghimself. He was stopped by Brutus, who quietly said that Popilliusseemed rather to be asking a favor than telling a secret. Whatever hispurpose, Cæsar was not checked, but moved quietly on and took his seat. 

Immediately Cimber, one of the conspirators, approached with a petition, in which he begged for the recall of his brother from banishment. Theothers pressed round, praying Cæsar to grant his request. Displeased bytheir importunity, Cæsar attempted to rise, but was pulled down into hisseat by Cimber, while Casca stabbed him in the side, but inflicted onlya slight wound. Then they all assailed him with drawn daggers. 

Cæsar kept them off for a brief time by winding his gown as a shieldround his left arm, and using his sharp writing style for a weapon. Butwhen he saw Brutus approach prepared to strike he exclaimed in deepsorrow and reproach, "_Et tu, Brute!_" (Thou too, Brutus!) and coveringhis face with his gown, he ceased to resist. Their daggers pierced hisbody till he had received twenty-three wounds, when he fell dead at thebase of the statue of Pompey, which looked silently down on theslaughter of his great and successful rival. 

What followed this base and fruitless deed may be briefly told. Thesenators not in the plot rose in alarm and fled from the house. WhenBrutus turned to seek to justify his deed only empty benches remained. Then the assassins hurried to the Forum, to tell the people that theyhad freed Rome from a despot. But the people were hostile, and the wordsof Brutus fell on unfriendly ears. 

Marc Antony followed, and delivered a telling oration, which Shakespearehas magnificently paraphrased. He showed the mob a waxen image ofCæsar's body, pierced with wounds, and the garment rent by murderousblades. His words wrought his hearers to fury. They tore up benches, tables, and everything on which they could lay their hands, for afuneral pile, placed on it the corpse, and set it on fire. Then, seizingblazing embers from the pile, they rushed in quest of vengeance to thehouses of the conspirators. They were too late; all had fled. The willof the dictator, in which he had made a large donation to every citizenof Rome, added to the popular fury, and a frenzy of vengeance tookpossession of the people of Rome. 

[Illustration: ANTONY'S ORATION OVER CÆSAR. ]

We must give the sequel of this murderous deed in a few words. MarcAntony was now master of Rome. He increased his power by pretendingmoderation, and having a law passed to abolish the dictatorship forever. But there were other actors on the scene. Octavius, whom Cæsar's willhad named as his heir, took quick steps to gain his heritage. Antony hadtaken possession of Cæsar's wealth, but Octavius managed to raise moneyenough to pay his uncle's legacy to the citizens of Rome. A third manof power was Lepidus, who commanded an army near Rome, and was preparedto take part in the course of events. 

Octavius was still only a boy, not yet twenty years of age. But he wasshrewd and ambitious, and soon succeeded in having himself electedconsul and put at the head of a large army. Cicero aided him with aseries of orations directed against Antony, which were so keen andbitter, and had such an effect upon the people, that Antony was declareda public enemy. Octavius marched to meet him and Lepidus, who weremarching southward with another large army. 

Instead of fighting, however, the three leaders met in secret conclave, and agreed to divide the power in Rome between them. This compact isknown as the Second Triumvirate. Its members followed the example ofMarius and Sulla, not that of Cæsar, and resolved to extirpate theirenemies. Each of them gave up personal friends to the vengeance of theothers. Of their victims the most famous was Cicero, who had deliveredhis orations against Antony in aid of Octavius. The ambitious boy wasbase enough to yield his friend to the vengeance of the incensed Antony. No less than three hundred senators and two thousand knights fellvictims to this new proscription, which while it lasted made a reign ofterror in Rome. 

Brutus and Cassius had meanwhile made themselves masters of Greece andthe eastern provinces of Rome, and were ready to meet the forces of theTriumvirate in the field. The decisive battle was fought on the fieldof Philippi in Northern Greece. The division of Cassius was defeated, and he killed himself in despair. Twenty days afterwards another battlewas fought on the same field, in which Brutus was defeated, and likewiseput an end to his life. The triumvirs were undisputed lords of Rome. Theimperial rule of Cæsar had lasted but a few months, and ended with hislife. But with Octavius began an imperial era which lasted till the endof the dominion of Rome. 

_ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. _

The battles of Philippi and the death of Brutus and Cassius put an endto the republican party to whom Cæsar owed his death. The whole realmwas handed over to the imperial Triumvirate, who now made a new divisionof the vast Roman world. Antony took as his share all the mighty realmof the East; Octavius all the West. To Lepidus, whom his powerfulconfederates did not take the trouble to consult, only Africa was left. 

The after-career of Antony was a curious and impressive one. He loved abewitching Egyptian queen, and for a false love lost the vast dominionhe had won. The story is one of the most romantic and popular of allthat have come to us from the past. It has been told in detail byPlutarch and richly dramatized by Shakespeare. We give it here in briefepitome. 

Fourteen years previously Antony had visited Alexandria, and had thereseen the youthful Cleopatra, then a girl of fifteen, but already sobeautiful and attractive that the susceptible Roman was deeply smittenwith her charms. Later she had charmed Cæsar, and now when the lord ofthe East set out on a tour of his new dominions, the love queen of Egyptleft her capital for Cilicia with the purpose of making him her captive. 

It was midsummer of the year 41 B. C. When Antony arrived at Tarsus, onthe river Cydnus. Up this stream to visit him came, in more thanOriental pomp, the beautiful Egyptian queen. The galley that bore herwas gorgeous beyond comparison. Its sails were of Tyrian purple; silveroars fretted the yielding wave, while music timed their rise and fall;the poop glittered with burnished gold; rich perfumes filled the airwith fragrance. Here, on a splendid couch, under a spangled canopy, reclined Cleopatra, attired as Venus, and surrounded by attendantsdressed as Graces and Cupids. Beautiful slaves moved oars and ropes, andthe whole array was one of wondrous charm. We cannot do better thanquote Shakespeare's vivid description of this unequalled spectacle:

 "The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, Burned on the water; the poop was beaten gold; Purple the sails, and so perfumed that The winds were love-sick with them; the oars were silver, Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made The water that they beat to follow faster, As amorous of their strokes. For her own person, It beggared all description; she did lie In her pavilion--cloth-of-gold of tissue-- Outpicturing that Venus where we see The fancy outwork nature; on each side her Stood pretty dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids, With divers-colored fans, whose wind did seem To glow the delicate cheeks which they did cool. "

The people of Tarsus ran in crowds to gaze on this wondrous spectacle, leaving Antony alone in the Forum. At the request of Cleopatra he camealso, and was so captivated at sight that he became her slave. He forgotRome, forgot his wife Fulvia, forgot honor and dignity, through his wildpassion for this Egyptian sorceress. Following her to Alexandria, helaid aside his Roman garb for the Oriental costume of the Egyptiancourt, gave way to all Cleopatra's pleasure-loving caprices, and livedin a perpetual round of orgies and festivities, heedless of honor andduty, and caring for naught but love and sensual enjoyment. 

Intoxicated with pleasure, Antony did not know what risk he ran. Shortlybefore Octavius had been spoken of as a boy, whom it would be easy tomanage and control. He was feeble and sickly, --so much so, indeed, thatjust at this time his death was reported in Rome. But the "boy" wasambitious, astute, and far-seeing, and Marc Antony was descending toruin with every step he took in his career of folly and profligacy. 

The history of the succeeding years is long, but must here be madeshort. The two lords of Rome were changed from friends to enemies by theact of Fulvia, the wife of Antony. Octavius had married her daughterClaudia, and now divorced her. Anger at this, and a hope of winningAntony from the seductions of the Egyptian queen, caused her to organizea formidable revolt against Octavius. She succeeded in raising a largearmy, but Antony was still too absorbed in Cleopatra to come to her aid, and Agrippa, the able general of Octavius, soon put down the revolt. 

Then, when it was too late to help her, Antony awoke from his lethargy, and sailed to battle with Octavius. He besieged Brundusium. But Fulviahad died, the soldiers had no heart for civil war, and the great rivalsagain made peace. Antony married Octavia, the sister of Octavius, theydivided the Roman world between them as before, and Rome was made happyby a grand round of games and festivities. 

[Illustration: THE GALLEY OF CLEOPATRA. ]

For three years Antony remained true to his new wife, and aided Octaviusin putting down the foes of Rome. Then, during a campaign in Syria, hisold passion for the fascinating Egyptian returned, he called Cleopatrato him, dallied with her instead of prosecuting his march, and in theend was forced to retreat in haste from the barbarian foe. 

For three years now Antony was the willing slave of the enchantingqueen. The courage and stoical endurance of the soldier vanished, andwere replaced by the soft indulgence of the voluptuary. The rigiddiscipline of the camp was exchanged for the idle and often childishamusements of the Oriental court. Cleopatra enchained him with anendless round of pleasures and profligacies. Now, while in afishing-boat on the Nile, the queen amused him by having salted fishfixed by divers on his hook, which he drew up amid the laughter of theparty. Again she wagered that she would consume ten million sesterces ata meal, and won her wager by drinking vinegar in which she had dissolveda priceless pearl. All the enjoyments that the fancy of the cunningenchantress could devise were spread around him, and he let the worldroll unheeded by while he yielded to their alluring charm. 

Antony posed at festive tables in the character of the god Osiris, whileCleopatra played the rôle of Isis. He issued coins which bore her headand his. He gave away kingdoms and principalities in the East to pleaseher fancy. It was her hope and aim to lead her yielding lover to theconquest of Rome, and to rule as empress of that imperial city. 

But the madness of Antony led to destruction, not empire. The story ofhis doings was repeated at Rome, where the voluptuary lost credit asOctavius gained it. Antony's friends urged him to dismiss Cleopatra andfight for the empire. Instead of this the infatuated madman divorcedOctavia and clung to the Egyptian queen. 

This act led to an open rupture. Octavius, by authority of the senate, declared war, not against Antony, but against Cleopatra. Antony was atlength roused. He gathered an army in haste, passed to Ephesus andAthens, and everywhere levied men and collected ships. A last and greatstruggle for the supreme headship of the Roman world was at hand. 

Octavius was not skilled in war, but he had in Agrippa one of the ablestof ancient generals, and was wise enough to trust all warlike operationsto him. Antony had strongly fortified himself at Actium, on the westcoast of Greece, while the strong fleet he had gathered lay in itsspacious bay. Here took place one of the decisive battles of the world'shistory. 

Antony had made the fatal mistake of bringing Cleopatra with him. Underher advice he played the part of a poltroon instead of a soldier. Hischief officers, disgusted by his fascination, deserted him in numbers, and, yielding to her urgent fears, he resolved to fly with the fleet andabandon the army. 

In this act of folly he failed. A strong gale from the south kept thefleet for four days in the harbor. Then the ships of Octavius came up, and the two fleets joined battle off the headland of Actium. 

The ships of Antony were much larger and more powerful than those ofOctavius. Little impression was made on them by the light Italianvessels, and had Antony been a soldier still, or Cleopatra possessed asmuch courage as guile, the victory might well have been theirs. Butbattle was no place for the pleasure-loving queen. Filled with terror, she took advantage of the first wind that came, and sailed hastily away, followed by sixty Egyptian ships. 

The moment Antony discovered her flight he gave up the world for love. Springing from his ship-of-war into a light galley, he hastened in wildpursuit after his flying mistress. Overtaking her vessel, he went onboard, but seated himself in morose misery at a distance, and would havenothing to do with her. Ruin and despair were now his mistresses. 

Their commander fled, the ships fought on, and yielded not till thegreater part of them were in flames. Before night they were alldestroyed, and with them perished most of those on board, while all thetreasure was lost. When the army heard of Antony's desertion the legionswent over to the conqueror. That brief sea-fight had ended the war. 

For a year Octavius did not trouble his rival. He spent the time incementing his power in Greece and Asia Minor. Cleopatra tried herfascinations on him, as she had on Cæsar and Antony, but in vain. Shesought to fly to some place beyond the reach of Rome, but Arabsdestroyed her ships. At length Octavius came. Antony made some show ofhostility, but Cleopatra betrayed the fleet to his rival and allresistance ended. Octavius entered the open gates of Alexandria as aconqueror. 

The queen shut herself up in a building which she had erected as amausoleum. It had no door, being built to receive her body after death, and word was sent out that she was already dead. 

When these false tidings were brought to Antony all his anger againstthe fair traitress was replaced by a flood of his old tenderness. Indespair he stabbed himself, bidding his attendants to lay his bodybeside that of Cleopatra. 

Still living, he was borne to the queen's retreat, where, moved by pity, she had him drawn up by cords into an upper window. Here she threwherself in agony on his body, bathed his face with her tears, andcontinued to bemoan his fate until he was dead. 

She afterwards consented to receive Octavius. He spoke her fairly, butshe was wise enough to see that all her charms were lost on him, andthat he proposed to degrade her by making her walk as a captive in histriumph. 

With a cunning greater than his own, Cleopatra promised to submit. Shehad no apparent means of taking her life in the cell, every dangerousweapon was removed by his orders, and he left her, as he supposed, asafe victim of his wiles. 

He did not know Cleopatra. When his messengers returned, at the hourfixed, to conduct her away, they found only the dead body of Cleopatrastretched upon her couch, and by her side her two faithful attendants, Iris and Charmion. It is said that she died from the bite of an asp, avenomous Egyptian serpent, which had been secretly conveyed to herconcealed in a basket of fruit; but this story remains unconfirmed. 

Plutarch tells the story thus: "But when they opened the doors theyfound Cleopatra stark dead, laid upon a bed of gold, attired and arrayedin her royal robes, and one of her two women, who was called Iris, deadat her feet, and the other woman (called Charmion) half dead, andtrembling, trimming the diadem which Cleopatra wore upon her head. 

"One of the soldiers, seeing her, angrily said to her, 'Is that welldone, Charmion?' 'Very well, ' said she again, 'and meet for a princessdescended from the race of so many noble kings. ' She said no more, butfell down dead, hard by the bed. 

"Now Cæsar, though he was marvellous sorry for the death of Cleopatra, yet he wondered at her noble mind and courage, and therefore commandedthat she should be nobly buried and laid by Antony. "

Thus ends the story of these two famous lovers of old. Octavius, afterwards known as Cæsar Augustus, reigned sole emperor of Rome, andthe republic was at an end. He was not formally proclaimed emperor, butliberty and independence were thereafter forgotten words in Rome. Heended the old era of Roman history by closing the Temple of Janus, forthe third time since it was built, and by freely forgiving all thefriends of Antony. He had nothing to fear and had no thirst for bloodand misery. Base as he had shown himself in his youth, his reign was anoble one, and during it Rome reached its highest level of literary andmilitary glory. 

_AN IMPERIAL MONSTER. _

A being, half monster, half madman, had come to empire in Rome. This wasCaius Cæsar, great-grandson of Augustus, who in his short career asemperor displayed a malignant cruelty unsurpassed by the worst of Romanemperors, and a mad folly unequalled by any. The only conceivable excusefor him is mental disease; but insanity which takes the form of thirstfor blood, and is combined with unlimited power, is a spectacle to makethe very gods weep. We describe his career as the most exaggeratedinstance on record of mingled folly and malignity. 

Brought up in the camp, he was christened by the soldiers Caligula, fromthe soldier's boots (_caligæ_) which he wore. By shrewd dissimulation hepreserved his life through the reign of Tiberius, and was left heir tothe throne along with the emperor's grandson. But, deceiving the senateby his pretended moderation, he was appointed by that body sole emperor. 

They little knew what they did. Tiberius, who appears to have read himtruly, spoke of educating him "for the destruction of the Roman people, "and Caligula seemed eager to make these words good. At first, indeed, he seemed generous and merciful, mingling this affectation with a savageprofligacy and voluptuousness. Illness, however, apparently affected hisbrain or destroyed what little moral nature he possessed, and he quicklyembarked on a career of frightful excess and barbarity. 

The great wealth left by Tiberius--over twenty-five million dollars--wasexpended by him in a single year, and to gain new funds he taxed androbbed his subjects to an incredible extent. One of his methods offinance was to force wealthy citizens to gamble with him for enormoussums, and when they lost their all (they dared not win), he would maketheir lives the stake and bid their friends redeem them. In addition tothis open robbery of the rich, taxes of all sorts were laid andunlimited oppressions enforced. The new edicts of the emperor werewritten so small and posted so high as to be unreadable, yet no excuseof ignorance of the law was admitted in extenuation of a fault. 

The funds obtained by such oppressive means were lavished on the mostextravagant follies. We are told of loaves of solid gold set before hisguests, and the prows of galleys adorned with diamonds. His favoritehorse was kept in an ivory stable and fed from a golden manger, and wheninvited to a banquet at his own table was regaled with gilded oats, served in a golden basin of exquisite workmanship. 

In addition to these domestic follies, he built villas and laid outgardens without regard to cost; and, that he might vie with Xerxes, heconstructed a bridge of ships three miles long, from Baiæ to Puteoli, on which he built houses and planted trees. This madness was concludedby throwing a great many of his guests from the bridge into the sea, andby driving recklessly with his war-galley through the throng of boatsthat had gathered to witness the spectacle. 

These cruelties were mild compared with his more deliberate ones. Romewas filled with executions, the estates of his victims beingconfiscated; and it was his choice delight to have these victimstortured and slain in his presence while at dinner, the officers beingbidden to protract their sufferings, that they might "feel themselvesdie. " On one occasion he expressed the mad wish that all the Romanpeople had but one neck, that he might strike it off at a blow. 

Priding himself on the indifference with which he could gaze on humantorture, it was one of his enjoyments to witness criminals torn topieces by wild beasts, and if criminals proved scarce he did nothesitate to order some of the spectators to be thrown into the arena. Inthe same manner, if a full supply of gladiators was wanting, he wouldcommand Roman knights to battle in the arena, taking delight in the factthat this was viewed as an infamous pursuit. He kept two listscontaining names of knights and senators whom he intended to put todeath, and these contained the majority of both those bodies of Romanpatricians. He is said to have put one man to death for being betterdressed than himself, and another for being better looking. 

He married more wives than he had years of empire; but when one ofthese wives, Drusilla by name, died, he affected the bitterest grief, exiling himself to Sicily, and letting his beard and hair grow into wilddisorder. On his return to Rome his subjects found themselves in adangerous quandary. Those who made a show of sadness were declaredguilty of disrespect to the memory of the queen, who had been translatedto the joys of heaven. Those who seemed glad were adjudged equallyguilty for not mourning her loss. And those who showed neither joy norsorrow were accused of criminal indifference to his feelings. One man, who sold warm water in the streets, was sentenced to death for daring topursue his occupation on so solemn an occasion. 

At a loss, as it would appear, in what madness next to indulge, Caligulafinally not only declared himself a god, but erected a temple to his owndivinity, and created a college of priests to serve at his altar. Amongthese were some of the first senators of Rome, who vied with each otherin adulation to this impious wretch. Not content with these, he made hiswife a priest, then his horse, and at length became a priest to himself. He played with the dignities of the realm in the same manner as with itsreligion, raised the ministers of his lusts to the highest offices, andfinally went so far as to make his horse a consul of Rome. 

In his position as a deity he pretended to be equal to and on friendlyterms with Jupiter, and would whisper in the ears of his statue as ifthey were in familiar intercourse. He had a machine constructed to viewith Jupiter's thunder, and during the lightning of a storm wouldchallenge the god to mortal combat by hurling stones into the air. 

This succession of mad frolics and ruthless cruelties should, it wouldseem, have satisfied even a Caligula, but he managed to overtop them allby a supreme piece of folly, which stands alone among human freaks. Hitherto his doings had been those of peace; he now resolved to gainglory in war, and show the Romans what a man of soldierly mettle theyhad in their emperor. There were no particular wars then afoot, but hewould make one, and resolved on an invasion of Germany, whose peoplewere at that time quiet subjects or allies of Rome. 

To decide with him was to act. The army was ordered to prepare with theutmost haste, and was driven so fiercely that all was in confusion, theroads everywhere being blocked up with hurrying troops and great convoysof provisions, all converging rapidly on the line of march. Not waitingtheir arrival, he put himself at the head of the first legions gathered, and set out on the march with such furious speed that the legionarieswere utterly exhausted with fatigue. Then, suddenly changing his mood, he affected the slow progress and military pomp of an Oriental king. 

On reaching the borders of Germany the emperor found no foes and showedno fancy for fighting. Concealing some boys in a wood, he got up a mockbattle with them, and at its end congratulated the troops on their valorand felicitated himself on his success. Next, the British island beingstill under process of conquest, he marched his army, two hundredthousand strong, to the sea-shore of Gaul, and drew them up in line ofbattle. The legionaries stolidly obeyed, wondering in their stern soulswhat new madness the emperor had in mind. 

They were soon to know. He bade them to fill their helmets withsea-shells, "the spoils of the ocean due to the Capitol and the palace. "Then he distributed large sums of money among the troops, giving areward for valor to each, and bidding them "henceforth to be happy andrich. "

This was all well for the army, but the people of Rome must be impressedwith the glory and victorious success of their emperor. Such a careerwas worthy a triumph; and to the German hostages and criminals, destinedto figure in the procession to the Capitol, he added a number of talland martial Gauls, chosen without regard to rank or condition, whom heordered to learn German, that they might pass for German captives. 

And now, his military expedition having ended without shedding the bloodof a foe, Caligula's insane thirst for blood arose, and he determined toglut it out of the ranks of his own army. There were in it someregiments which had mutinied against his father on the death ofAugustus. He ordered these to be slaughtered for their crime. Some ofhis higher officers representing to him the danger of such a proceeding, he changed his mind, and gave orders that these legions should bedecimated. But the whole army showed such symptoms of discontent withthis cruel order that Caligula was seized with consternation, and fledin a panic to Rome. 

On reaching the city the senate proved bold enough to vote him anovation instead of the triumph on which he had set his mind. Incensed atthis, he met the advances of the patricians with stinging insults, andperhaps determined in his mind to be deeply revenged for thispremeditated slight. 

Whatever he had in view, he did not live much longer to afflict mankind. Four months more brought him to the end of his flagitious career. Therewas a brave soldier of the palace guard, Cassius Chærea by name, whohappened to have a weak voice, and whom Caligula frequently insulted inpublic for this fault of nature. These insults in time grew heavier andviler than the veteran could bear, and he organized a conspiracy with afew others against the emperor's life. Meeting him without guards, theconspirators assailed him with their daggers and put an end to his baselife. 

Thus died, after twenty-nine years of life and four years of power, oneof the vilest, cruellest, and maddest of the imperial demons who so longmade Rome a slaughter-house and an abomination among the nations. 

_THE MURDER OF AN EMPRESS. _

Nero was lord of Rome. Chance had placed a weak and immoral boy inunlimited control of the greatest of nations. Utterly destitute ofprinciple, he gradually descended into the deepest vice and profligacy, which was soon succeeded by the basest cruelty and treachery. And one ofthe first victims of his treachery was his own mother, who had murderedher husband, the Emperor Claudius, to place him on the throne, and hadnow committed the deeper fault of attempting to control her worthlessand faithless son. 

She had threatened to replace him on the throne with his half-brotherBritannicus, and Nero had escaped this difficulty by poisoningBritannicus. She then opposed his vicious passions, and made a bitterfoe of his mistress Poppæa, who by every artifice incensed theweak-minded emperor against his mother, representing her as the onlyobstacle to his full enjoyment of power and pleasure. 

At length the detestable son was wrought up to the resolution ofmurdering her to whom he owed his life. But how? He was too cowardly andirresolute to take open means. Should he remove her by poison or thepoignard? The first was doubtful. Agrippina was too practised in guilt, too accustomed to vile deeds, to be easily deceived, and had, moreover, by taking poisons, hardened her frame against their effect. Nor couldshe be killed by the knife and the murder concealed. The murder-seekingwretch, who had no plan, and no stronger person than himself in whom hecould confide, was at a loss how to carry out his wicked purpose. 

At this juncture his tutor Anicetus came to his aid. This villain, whobitterly hated Agrippina, was now in command of the fleet that lay atMisenum. He proposed to Nero to have a vessel built in such a mannerthat it might give way in the open sea, and plunge to the bottom withall not prepared to escape. If Agrippina could be lured on board such avessel, her drowning would seem one of the natural disasters of the opensea. 

This suggestion filled with joy the mind of the unnatural son. The courtwas then at Baiæ, celebrating the festival called the Quinquatria. Agrippina was invited to attend, and Nero, pretending a desire forreconciliation, went to the sea-shore to meet her on her arrival, embraced her tenderly, and conducted her to a villa in a pleasantsituation, looking out on a charming bay of the Mediterranean. 

On the waters of the bay floated a number of vessels, among which wasone superbly decorated, being prepared, as she was told, in her honor asthe emperor's mother. This was intended to convey her to Baiæ, where abanquet was to be given to her that evening. 

Agrippina was fond of sailing. She had frequently joined coastingparties and made pleasure trips of her own. But for some reason, perhapsthrough suspicion of Nero's dark project, she now took a carriage inpreference, and arrived safely at Baiæ, much to the discomfiture of herworthless son. 

Nero, however, was cunning enough to conceal his disappointment. He gaveher the most gracious reception, placed her at table above himself, andby his affectionate attentions and his easy flow of talk succeeded indispelling any suspicions his mother may have entertained. 

The banquet was continued till a late hour, and when Agrippina rose togo Nero attended her to the shore, where lay the sumptuously decoratedvessel ready to convey her back to her villa. Here he lavished upon hermarks of fond affection, clasped her warmly to his bosom, and bade heradieu in words of tender regret, disguising his fell purpose under theutmost show of tenderness. 

Agrippina went on board, attended by only two of her train, one of whom, a maid named Acerronia, lay at the foot of her mistress's couch, andgladly expressed her joy at the loving reconciliation which she had justperceived. 

The night was calm and serene. The stars shone with their brightestlustre. The sea extended with an unruffled surface. The vessel movedswiftly, at no great distance from the shore, under the regular sweep ofthe rowers' oars. Yet little way had been made when there came adisastrous change. A signal was given, and suddenly the deck overAgrippina's cabin sank in, borne down by a great weight of lead. 

One of the attendants of the empress was crushed to death, but the postsof Agrippina's couch proved strong enough to bear the weight, and sheand Acerronia escaped and made their way hastily to the deck. Hereconfusion and consternation reigned. The plot had failed. The vessel hadnot fallen to pieces at once, as intended. Those who were not in theplot rushed wildly to and fro, hampering, by their distracted movements, the operations of the guilty. These sought to sink the vessel at once, but in spite of their efforts the ship sank but slowly, giving theintended victims an opportunity to escape. 

Acerronia, with instinctive devotion to her mistress, or a desire tosave her own life, cried out that she was Agrippina, and patheticallyimplored the mariners to save her life. She won death instead. Theassassins attacked her with oars and other weapons, and beat her down tothe sinking deck. Agrippina, on the contrary, kept silent, and, with theexception of a wound on her shoulder, remained unhurt. Dashing into thedark waters of the bay, she swam towards the shore, and managed to keepherself afloat till taken up by a boat, in which some persons who hadwitnessed the accident from the shore had hastily put out. Telling herrescuers who she was, they conveyed her up the bay to her villa. 

Agrippina had been concerned in too many crimes of her own devising tobe deceived. The treachery of her son was too evident. Without touchinga rock, and in complete calm, the vessel had suddenly broken down, asif constructed for the purpose. Her own wound and the murder of her maidwere further proofs of a preconcerted plot. Yet she was too shrewd tomake her suspicions public. The plot had failed, and she was stillalive. She at once despatched a messenger to her son, saying that by thefavor of the gods and his good auspices she had escaped shipwreck, andthat she thus hastened to quiet his affectionate fears. She then retiredto her couch. 

Meanwhile Nero waited impatiently for the news of his mother's death. When word was at length brought him that she had escaped, his cravensoul was filled with terror. If this should get abroad; if she shouldcall on her slaves, on the army, on the senate; if the people shouldlearn of the plot of murder, and rise in riot; if any of a dozencontingencies should happen, all might be lost. 

The terrified emperor was in a frightful quandary. He sent in all hastefor his advisers, but none of them cared to offer any suggestions. Atlength the villanous Anicetus came to his aid. While they talked themessenger of Agrippina had arrived, and was admitted to give his messageto the prince. As he was speaking Anicetus foxily let fall a daggerbetween his legs. He instantly seized him, snatched up the dagger andshowed it to the company, and declared that the wretch had been sent byAgrippina to assassinate her son. The guards were called in, the man wasordered to be dragged away and put in fetters, and the story of thediscovered plot of Agrippina was made public. 

"Death to the murderess!" cried Anicetus. "Let me hasten at once toher punishment. "

Nero gladly assented, and Anicetus hurried from the room, empowered tocarry out his murderous intent. 

Meanwhile the news of the peril and escape of the empress had spread farand wide. A dreadful accident had occurred, it was said. The peoplerushed in numbers to the shore, crowded the piers, filled the boats, andgave voice to a medley of cries of alarm. The uproar was at lengthallayed by some men with lighted torches, who assured the excitedmultitude that Agrippina had escaped and was now safe in her villa. 

While they were speaking a body of soldiers, led by Anicetus, arrived, and with threats of violence dispersed the peasant throng. Then, planting a guard round the mansion, Anicetus burst open its doors, seized the slaves who appeared, and forced his way to the apartment ofthe empress. 

Here Agrippina waited in fear and agitation the return of her messenger. Why came he not? Was new murder in contemplation? She heard the tumultand confusion on the shore, and learned from her attendants what itmeant. But the noise was suddenly hushed; a dismal silence prevailed;then came new noises, then loud tones of command, and violent blows onthe outer doors. In dread of what was coming, the unhappy woman waitedstill, till loud steps sounded in the passage, the attendants at herdoor were thrust aside, and armed men entered her chamber. 

The room was in deep shadow, only the pale glimmer of a feeble lightbreaking the gloom. A single maid remained with the empress, and she, too, hastened to the door on hearing the tramp of warlike feet. 

"Do you, too, desert me?" cried Agrippina, in deep reproach. 

At that moment Anicetus entered the room, followed by two otherruffians. They approached her bed. She rose to receive them. 

"If you come from the prince, " she said, "tell him I am well. If yourintents are murderous, you are not sent by my son. The guilt ofparricide is foreign to his heart. "

Her words were checked by a blow on the head with a club. A sword-thrustfollowed, and she expired under a number of mortal wounds. Thus died theniece, the wife, and the mother of an emperor, the daughter of thecelebrated soldier Germanicus, herself so stained with vice that nonecan pity her fate, particularly as she had committed the furtherunconscious crime of giving birth to the monster named Nero. 

_BOADICEA, THE HEROINE OF BRITAIN. _

Prasutagus, the king of the Icenians, a tribe of the ancient Britons, had amassed much wealth in the course of a long reign. On his death, inorder to secure the favor of the Romans, now masters of the island, heleft half his wealth by will to the emperor and half to his twodaughters. This well-judged action of the barbarian king did not havethe intended effect. No sooner was he dead than the Romans in thevicinity claimed the whole estate as theirs, ruthlessly pillaged hishouse, and seized all his effects. 

This base brigandage roused Boadicea, the widowed queen, to a vigorousprotest, but with the sole result of bringing a worse calamity upon herhead. She was seized and cruelly scourged by the ruthless Romans, hertwo daughters were vilely maltreated, and the noblest of the Icenianswere robbed of their possessions by the plunderers, who went so far asto reduce to slavery the near relatives of the deceased king. 

Roused to madness by this inhuman treatment, the Icenians broke intoopen revolt. They were joined by a neighboring state, while thesurrounding Britons, not yet inured to bondage, secretly resolved tojoin the cause of liberty. There had lately been planted a colony ofRoman veterans at Camalodunum (Colchester), who had treated the Britonscruelly, driven them from their houses, and insulted them with the namesof slaves and captives; while the common soldiers, a licentious andgreedy crew, still further degraded and robbed the owners of the land. 

The invaders went too far for British endurance, and brought a terribleretribution upon themselves. Paulinus Suetonius, an able officer, whothen commanded in Britain, was absent on an expedition to conquer theisland of Mona. Of this expedition the historian Tacitus gives a vividaccount. As the boats of the Romans approached the island they beheld onthe shore the Britons prepared to receive them, while through theirranks rushed their women in funereal attire, their hair flying loose inthe wind, flaming torches in their hands, and their whole appearancerecalling the frantic rage of the fabled Furies. Near by, ranged inorder, stood the venerable Druids, or Celtic priests, with upliftedhands, at once invoking the gods and pouring forth imprecations upon thefoe. 

The novelty and impressiveness of this spectacle filled the Romans withawe and wonder. They stood in stupid amazement, riveted to the spot, anda mark for the foe had they been then attacked. From this briefparalysis the voice of their general recalled them, and, ashamed ofbeing held in awe by a troop of women and a band of fanatic priests, they rushed to the assault, cut down all before them, and set fire tothe edifices and the sacred groves of the island with the torches whichthe Britons themselves had kindled. 

But Suetonius had chosen a perilous time for this enterprise. During hisabsence the wrongs of the Icenians and the exhortations of Boadicea hadroused a formidable revolt, and the undefended colonies of the Romanswere in danger. 

In addition to the actual peril the Romans were frightened with direomens. The statue of victory at Camalodunum fell without any visiblecause, and lay prostrate on the ground. Clamors in a foreign accent wereheard in the Roman council chamber, the theatres were filled with thesound of savage howlings, the sea ran purple as with blood, the figuresof human bodies were traced on the sands, and the image of a colony inruins was reflected from the waters of the Thames. 

These omens threw the Romans into despair and filled the minds of theBritons with joy. No effort was made by the soldiers for defence, noditch was dug, no palisade erected, and the assault of the Britons foundthe colonists utterly unprepared. Taken by surprise, the Romans wereoverpowered, and the colony was laid waste with fire and sword. Thefortified temple alone held out, but after a two days' siege it also wastaken, and the legion which marched to its relief was cut to pieces. 

Boadicea was now the leading spirit among the Britons. Her wrongs hadstirred them to revolt, and her warlike energy led them to victory andrevenge. But she was soon to have a master-spirit to meet. Suetonius, recalled from the island of Mona by tidings of rebellion and disaster, marched hastily as far as London, which was even then the chiefresidence of the merchants and the centre of trade and commerce of theisland. 

His army was small, not more than ten thousand men in all. That of theBritons was large. The interests of the empire were greater than thoseof any city, and Suetonius found himself obliged to abandon London tothe barbarians, despite the supplications of its imperilled citizens. All he would agree to was to take under his protection those who choseto follow his banner. Many followed him, but many remained, and nosooner had he marched out than the Britons fell in rage on thesettlement, and killed all they found. In like manner they ravagedVerulamium (St. Albans). Seventy thousand Romans are said to have beenput to the sword. 

Meanwhile Suetonius marched through the land, and at length the twoarmies met. The skilled Roman general drew up his force in a place wherea thick forest sheltered the rear and flanks, leaving only a narrowfront open to attack. Here the Britons, twenty times his number, andconfident of victory, approached. The warlike Boadicea, tall, stern ofcountenance, her hair hanging to her waist, a spear in her hand, drovealong their front in a warlike car, with her two daughters by her side, and eloquently sought to rouse her countrymen to thirst for revenge. 

Telling them of the base cruelty with which she and her daughters hadbeen treated, and painting in vivid words the arrogance and insults ofthe Romans, she besought them to fight for their country and theirhomes. "On this spot we must either conquer or die with glory, " shesaid. "There is no alternative. Though I am a woman, my resolution isfixed. The men, if they prefer, may survive with infamy and live inbondage. For me there is only victory or death. "

Stirred to fury by her words, the British host poured like a deluge ontheir foes. But the Roman arms and discipline proved far too much forbarbarian courage and ferocity. The British were repulsed, and, rushingforward in a wedge shape, the legions cut their way with frightfulcarnage through the disordered ranks. The cavalry seconded theirefforts. Thousands fell. The rest took to flight. But the wagons of theBritish, which had been massed in the rear, impeded their flight, and adreadful slaughter, in which neither sex nor age was spared, ensued. Tacitus tells us that eighty thousand Britons fell, while the Romanslain numbered no more than four hundred men. 

Boadicea, who had done her utmost to rally her flying hosts, kept to herresolution. When all was lost, she took poison, and perished upon thefield where she had vowed to seek victory or death. With her decease thesuccess of the Britons vanished. Though they still kept the field, theygradually yielded to the Roman arms, and Britain became in time a quietand peaceful part of the great empire of Rome. 

_ROME SWEPT BY FLAMES. _

Nero, the cruel coward under whom Rome for its sins was made to suffer, could scarcely devise follies and atrocities enough to please hisprofligate fancy. He offended the pride and sense of decorum of Rome byforcing senators and women of the highest rank to appear as gladiatorsin the arena. He exposed himself to ridicule by appearing as an actor inthe theatre at Naples, which theatre, as soon as the audience dispersed, tumbled to pieces, --a little late so far as Nero himself was concerned. Returning to Rome, he indulged in every species of vice and folly, lavishing the wealth of the state with the utmost prodigality. On thelake of Agrippa he had a pavilion erected on a great floating platform, which was moved from point to point by the aid of boats superblydecorated with gold and ivory, while to furnish the banquet here given, animals of the chase were sought in the whole country round, and fishwere brought from every sea and even from the distant ocean. When nightdescended a sudden illumination burst forth from all sides, and musicresounded from every grove. These are the mentionable parts of thefestival. Vile scenes were exhibited of which nothing can be said. 

Finally, at a loss in what deeper excess of vice and ostentation toindulge, the crowned reprobate set fire to Rome that he might enjoy thespectacle of an unlimited conflagration. This wickedness, it is true, isdoubted by some historians, but we are told that during the prevalenceof the flames a crew of incendiaries threatened anyone with death whoshould seek to extinguish them, and flung flaming torches into thedwellings, crying that they acted under orders. 

In all the history of Rome this fire was far the most violent anddestructive. Breaking out in a number of shops stored with combustiblegoods, and driven by the winds, it raged with the utmost fury, neitherthe thick walls of the houses nor the enclosures of the templessufficing to stay its frightful progress. The form of the streets, long, narrow, and winding, added to the mischief, and the flames swiftly spedalike through the humblest and the stateliest quarters of the mightycapital. 

"The shrieks and lamentations of women, the infirmities of age, and theweakness of the young and tender, " says Tacitus, "added misery to thedreadful scene. Some endeavored to provide for themselves, others tosave their friends, in one part dragging along the lame and impotent, inanother waiting to receive the tardy, or expecting relief themselves;they hurried, they lingered, they obstructed one another; they lookedbehind, and the fire broke out in front; they escaped from the flames, and in their place of refuge found no safety; the fire raged in everyquarter; all were involved in one general conflagration. 

"The unhappy wretches fled to places remote, and thought themselvessecure, but soon perceived the flames raging round them. Which way toturn, what to avoid, or what to seek, no one could tell. They crowdedthe streets; they fell prostrate on the ground; they lay stretched inthe fields, in consternation and dismay resigned to their fate. Numberslost their whole substance, even the tools and implements by which theygained their livelihood, and, in that distress, did not wish to survive. Others, wild with affliction for their friends and relations whom theycould not save, embraced voluntary death, and perished in the flames. "

The story goes that, while the city was in its intensest blaze, Nerowatched it with high enjoyment from a tower in the house of Mæcenas, andfinally went to his own theatre, where in his scenic dress he mountedthe stage, tuned his harp, and sang the destruction of Troy. 

How far Nero was guilty and to what extent the stories told of him weretrue will never be known, but he was destined to feel the calamityhimself, for in time the devouring flames reached the imperial palace, and laid it with all its treasures and surrounding buildings in ruins. For six days the fire raged uncontrolled, and then, when it seemedsubdued, a new conflagration broke out and burned with all the old fury, spreading still more widely the area of ruin and devastation. 

The number of buildings destroyed cannot be ascertained. Not onlydwellings and shops, but temples, porticos, and other public buildings, were destroyed, among them the most venerable monuments of antiquity, which the worship of ages had rendered sacred; and with these thetrophies of uncounted victories, the inimitable works of the greatartists of Greece, and precious monuments of literature and ancientgenius, were irrecoverably lost. 

Whether or not this fire took place through Nero's orders, and wasplayed to by him on the harp, he showed more feeling for the people andmore good sense in the rebuilding of the city than could have beenexpected from one of his weak and vicious character. By his orders theField of Mars, the magnificent buildings erected by Agrippa, and eventhe imperial gardens were thrown open to the houseless people, and shedsfor their shelter were erected with all possible haste. Householdutensils and all kinds of useful implements were brought from Ostia andother neighboring cities, and the price of grain was reduced. But allthis failed to gain the good-will of the people, who were exasperated bythe story that Nero had exulted in the grandeur of the flames, andharped over burning Rome. 

When the fire was at length subdued, of the fourteen quarters of Romeonly four were left entire; the remainder presented more or less utterruin. The conflagration in the time of the Gauls had been little morecomplete, while the wealth now consumed was incomparably greater. Thewhole world had been robbed of its treasures to feed the flames of Rome. But the haste and ill-judged confusion with which the city was rebuiltafter the irruption of the Gauls was not now repeated. A regular planwas formed; the new streets were made wide and straight; the elevationof the houses was defined, and each was given an open area before thedoor, and was adorned with porticos. The expense of these porticos Nerotook upon himself. He ordered also that the new houses should not becontiguous, but that each should be surrounded by its own enclosure;and, in order to hurry the work, he offered rewards to those who shouldfinish their buildings in a fixed period. As for the refuse of the fire, it was removed at Nero's expense to the marshes of Ostia in the shipsthat brought corn up the Tiber. 

These regulations, while they must have made much confusion among therival claimants of building sites, added greatly to the beauty andcomfort of the new city, and the Rome which rose from the ruins was farmore stately and handsome than the Rome which had vanished in ashes andsmoke. But Nero, while showing some passing feeling for the people andsome wisdom in the rebuilding of the city, did not hesitate to use agenerous portion of the devastated space for his own advantage. Hispalace had been destroyed, and he built a new and most magnificent oneon the Palatine Hill, the famous "golden house, " which after-ages beheldwith unstinted admiration. 

But he did not confine his ostentation to the palace itself. A greatspace around it was converted into pleasure-grounds for his amusement, in which, as Tacitus says, "expansive lakes and fields of vast extentwere intermixed with pleasing variety; woods and forests stretched toan immeasurable length, presenting gloom and solitude amid scenes ofopen space, where the eye wandered with surprise over an unboundedprospect. "

But nothing that Nero could do sufficed to remove from men's minds thebelief that on him rested the infamy of the fire. This public sentimenttroubled and frightened him, and to remove it he sought to lay theburden of guilt on others. It was now the year 64 A. D. , and for at leastthirty years the new sect of the Christians had been spreading in Rome, where it had gained many adherents among the humbler and more moralsection of the population. The Christians were far from popular. Theywere accused of secret and evil practices and debasing superstitions, and on this despised sect Nero determined to turn the fury of thepopulace. 

[Illustration: THE TOMB OF HADRIAN. ]

With his usual artifice he induced a number of abandoned wretches toconfess themselves guilty, and on their purchased evidence numbers ofthe Christians were seized and convicted, mainly on the plea of theirsullen hatred of the whole human race. A frightful persecution followed, Nero perhaps hoping, by an exhibition of human suffering, so dear to therabble of Rome, to turn the thoughts of the people from their ownlosses. 

The captives were put to death with every cruelty the emperor coulddevise, and to their sufferings he added mockery and derision. Many werenailed to the cross; others were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and left to be devoured by dogs; numbers were burned alive, many ofthese, covered with inflammable matter, being set on fire to serve astorches during the night. 

That the public might see this tragic spectacle with the moresatisfaction, it was given in the imperial gardens. The sports of thecircus were added to the tortures of the victims, Nero himself drivinghis chariot in the races, or mingling with the rabble in his coachman'sdress. These cruel proceedings continued until even the hardened Romanheart became softened with compassion, spectators failed to come, andNero felt obliged to yield to a general demand that the persecutionsshould cease. 

While all this went on at Rome, the people of the whole empire sufferedwith those of the capital city. Italy was ravaged and the provincesplundered to supply the demand for the rebuilding of the city and palaceand the unbounded prodigality of the emperor. The very gods were taxed, their temples being robbed of golden treasures which had been gatheringfor ages through the gifts of pious devotees; while in Greece and Asianot alone the treasures of the temples but the statues of the deitieswere seized. Nero was preparing for himself a load of infamy worthy ofthe most frightful retribution, and which would not fail soon to reapits fitting reward. 

_THE DOOM OF NERO. _

We have perhaps paid too much attention to the enormities of Caligulaand Nero. Yet the mad freakishness of the one and the cowardlydissimulation of the other give to their stories a dramatic interestwhich seems to render them worth repeating. Nero, one of the basest andcruelest of the Roman emperors, is one of the best known to readers, andthe interest felt in him is not alone due to the story of his life, butas well to that of his death, which we therefore here give. 

A conspiracy against him among some of the noblest citizens of Rome wasdiscovered and punished with revengeful fury. It was followed, a fewyears afterwards, by a revolt of the armies in Gaul and Spain. This wasin its turn quelled, and Nero triumphed in imagination over all hisenemies. But he had lost favor alike with the army and the people, andan event now happened that threw the whole city into a ferment of angeragainst him. 

Food was scarce, and the arrival of a ship from Alexandria, supposed tobe loaded with corn, filled the people with joy. It proved instead to beloaded with sand for the arena. In their disappointment the people brokeat first into scurrilous jests against Nero, and then into rage andfury. A wild clamor filled the streets. On all sides rose the demand tobe delivered from a monster. Even the Prætorian guards, who had hithertosupported the emperor, began to show signs of disaffection, and werewrought to a spirit of revolt by two of the choice companions of Nero'siniquities, who now deserted him as rats desert a sinking ship. Thesenate was approached and told that Nero was no longer supported by hisfriends, and that they might now regain the power of which they had beendeprived. 

Some whisper of what was afloat reached Nero's ears. Filled with cravenfury, he resolved to massacre the senate, to set fire again to the city, and to let loose his whole collection of wild beasts. He proposed to flyto Egypt during the consternation that would prevail. A trusted servant, to whom he told this design, revealed it to the senate. It filled themwith fear and rage. Yet even in so dire a contingency they could not beprevailed upon to act with vigor, and all might have been lost by theirprocrastination and timidity but for the two men who had organized therevolt. 

These men, Nymphidius and Tigellinus by name, went to the palace, andwith a show of deep affliction informed Nero of his danger. "All islost, " they said: "the people call aloud for vengeance; the Prætorianguards have abandoned your cause; the senate is ready to pronounce adreadful judgment. Only one hope remains to you, to fly for your life, and seek a retreat in Egypt. "

It was as they said; revolt was everywhere in the air, and affected thearmies near and far. Nero sought assistance, but sought it in vain. Thepalace, lately swarming with life, was now deserted. Nero wanderedthrough its empty chambers, and found only solitude and gloom. Conscience awoke in his seared heart, and he was filled with horror andremorse. Of all his late crowd of courtiers only three friends nowremained with him, --Sporus, a servant; Phaon, a freedman; andEpaphroditus, his secretary. 

"'My wife, my father, and my mother doom me dead!'" he bitterly cried, quoting a line from a Greek tragedy. 

With a last hope he bade the soldiers on duty to hasten to Ostia andprepare a ship, on which he might embark for Egypt. The men refused. 

"'Is it, then, so wretched a thing to die?'" said one of them, quotingfrom Virgil. 

This refusal threw Nero into despair. He hurried to the Serviliangardens, with a vial of deadly poison, which, on getting there, he hadnot the courage to take. He returned to the palace and threw himself onhis bed. Then, too agitated to lie, he sprang up and called for somefriendly hand to end his wretched life. No one consented, and in hiswild despair he called out, in doleful accents, "My friends desert me, and I cannot find an enemy. "

The world had suddenly fallen away from the despicable Nero. A weekbefore he had ordered it at his will, now "none so poor to do himreverence. " His craven terror would have been pitiable in any one towhom the word pity could apply. In frantic dread he rushed from thepalace, as if with intent to fling himself into the Tiber. Then ashastily he returned, saying that he would fly to Spain, and yieldhimself to the mercy of Galba, who commanded the revolted army. But noship was to be had for either Spain or Egypt, and this plan wasabandoned as quickly as formed. 

These and other projects passed in succession through his distractedbrain. One of the most absurd of them was to go in a mourning garb tothe Forum, and by his powers of eloquence seek to win back the favor ofthe people. If they would not have him as emperor, he might bypersuasive oratory obtain from them the government of Egypt. 

Full of hope in this new project, he was about to put it into effect, when a fresh reflection filled his soul with horror. What if thepopulace should, without waiting to hear his harmonious accents andunequalled oratory, break out in sudden rage and rend him limb fromlimb? Might they not assail him in the palace? Might not a seditious mobbe already on its way thither, bent on bloody work? Whither should hefly? Where find refuge?

Turning in despair to his companions, he asked them, wildly, "Is thereno hiding-place, no safe retreat, where I may have leisure to considerwhat is to be done?"

Phaon, his freedman, told him that he owned an obscure villa, at adistance of about four miles from Rome, where he might remain for a timein concealment. 

This suggestion, in Nero's state of distraction, was eagerlyembraced, --in such haste, indeed, that he left the palace without aninstant's preparation, his feet destitute of shoes, and no garment buthis close tunic, his outer garments and imperial robe having beendiscarded in his distraction. The utmost he did was to snatch up an oldrusty robe as a disguise, covering his head with it, and holding ahandkerchief before his face. Thus attired, he mounted his horse andfled in frantic fear, attended only by the three men we have mentioned, and a fourth named Neophytus. 

Meanwhile, the revolt in the city was growing more and more decided. When the coming day showed its first faint rays, the Prætorian guards, who had been on duty in the palace, left their post and marched to thecamp. Here, under the influence of Nymphidius, Galba was nominatedemperor. This was an important innovation in the government of Rome. Hitherto the imperial dignity had remained in the family of Cæsar, descending by hereditary transmission. Nero was the last of that familyto wear the crown. Henceforth the army and its generals controlled thedestinies of the empire. The nomination of Galba by the Prætorian guardsignalized the new state of things, in which the emperors would largelybe chosen by that guard or by some army in the field. 

The action of the Prætorian guard was supported by the senate. Thatbody, awaking from its late timidity, determined to mark the day with adecree worthy of its past history. With unanimous decision theypronounced Nero a tyrant who had trampled on all laws, human and divine, and condemned him to suffer death with all the rigor of the ancientlaws. 

While this revolution was taking place in the city the terror-strickenNero was still in frantic flight. He passed the Prætorian camp nearenough to hear loud acclamations, among which the name of Galba reachedhis ear. As the small cavalcade hastened by a man early at work in thefields, he looked up and said, "These people must be hot in pursuit ofNero. " A short distance farther another hailed them, asking, "What dothey say of Nero in the city?"

A more alarming event occurred soon. As they drew near Phaon's house thehorse of Nero started at a dead carcass beside the road, shaking downthe handkerchief by which he had concealed his face. The movementrevealed him to a veteran soldier, then on his way to Rome, and ignorantof what was taking place in the city. He recognized and saluted theemperor by name. 

This incident increased Nero's fear. His route of flight would now beknown. He pressed his horse to the utmost speed until Phaon's house wasclose at hand. They now halted and Nero dismounted, it being thoughtunsafe for him to enter the house publicly. He crossed a field overgrownwith reeds, and, being tortured with thirst, scooped up some water froma muddy ditch and drank it, saying, dolefully, "Is this the beveragewhich Nero has been used to drink?"

Phaon advised him to conceal himself in a neighboring sand-pit, fromwhich could be opened for him a subterraneous passage to the house, butNero refused, saying that he did not care to be buried alive. Hiscompanions then made an opening in the wall on one side of the house, through which Nero crept on his hands and knees. Entering a wretchedchamber, he threw himself on a mean bed, which was covered with atattered coverlet, and asked for some refreshment. 

All they could offer him was a little coarse bread, so black that thesight of it sickened his dainty taste, and some warm and foul water, which thirst forced him to drink. His friends meanwhile were in littleless desperation than himself. They saw that no hope was left and thathis place of concealment would soon be known, and entreated him to avoida disgraceful death by taking his own life. 

Nero promised to do so, but still sought reasons for delay. His funeralmust be prepared for, he said, and bade them to dig a grave, to preparewood for a funeral pile, and bring marble to cover his remains. Meanwhile he piteously bewailed his unhappy lot; sighed and shed tearscopiously; and said, with a last impulse of vanity, "What a musician theworld will lose!"

While he thus in cowardly procrastination delayed the inevitable end, amessenger, whom Phaon had ordered to bring news from Rome, arrived withpapers. These Nero eagerly seized and read. He found himself dethroned, declared a public enemy, and condemned to suffer death with the rigor ofancient usage. Such was the decree of the senate, which hitherto hadbeen his subservient slave. 

"Ancient usage?" he asked. "What do they mean? What kind of death isthat?"

"It is this, " they told him. "Every traitor, by the law of the oldrepublic, with his head fastened between two stakes, and his bodystripped naked, was slowly flogged to death by the lictors' rods. "

Dread of this terrible and ignominious punishment roused the tremblingwretch to some semblance of courage. He produced two daggers, which hehad brought with him, and tried their points. Then he replaced them intheir scabbards, saying, "The fatal moment is not yet come. "

Turning to Sporus, he said, "Sing the melancholy dirge, and offer thelast obsequies to your friend. " Then, rolling his eyes wildly around, heexclaimed, "Why will not some one of you kill himself, and teach me howto die?"

He paused a moment. No one seemed inclined to adopt his suggestion. Aflood of tears burst from his eyes. Starting up, he cried, in a tone ofwild despair, "Nero, this is infamy; you linger in disgrace; this is notime for dejected passions; this moment calls for manly fortitude. "

These words were hardly spoken when the sound of horses was heardadvancing rapidly towards the house. Theatrical to the end, he repeateda line from Homer which the noise of hoofs recalled to his mind. Atlength, driven to desperation, he seized his dagger and stabbed himselfin the throat, --but cowardice made the stroke too feeble. Epaphroditusnow lent his aid, and the next thrust was a mortal one. 

It was time. The horses were those of pursuers. The senate, informed ofhis probable place of refuge, had sent soldiers in haste to bring himback to Rome, there to suffer the punishment decreed. In a minuteafterwards a centurion entered the room, and, seeing Nero prostrate andbleeding, ran to his aid, saying that he would bind the wound and savehis life. 

Nero looked up languidly, and said, in faint tones, "You come too late. Is this your fidelity?" In a moment more he expired. 

In the words of Tacitus, "The ferocity of his nature was still visiblein his countenance. His eyes fixed and glaring, and every featureswelled with warring passions, he looked more stern, more grim, moreterrible than ever. "

Nero was in his thirty-second year. He had reigned nearly fourteenyears. Tacitus says of him, "The race of Cæsars ended with Nero; he wasthe last, and perhaps the worst, of that illustrious house. "

The tidings of his death filled Rome with joy. Men ran wildly about thestreets, their heads covered with liberty caps. Acclamations of gladnessresounded in the Forum. Icelus, Galba's freedman and agent in Rome, whomNero had thrown into prison, was released and took control of affairs. He ordered that Nero's body should be burned where he had died, and thiswas done so quickly and secretly that many would not believe that he wasdead. The report got abroad that he had escaped to Asia or Egypt, andfrom time to time impostors appeared claiming to be Nero. The Parthianswere deluded by one of these impostors and offered to defend his cause. Another made trouble in the Greek islands. Nero's profligate companionsin Rome, who alone mourned his death, while affecting to believe himstill alive raised a tomb to his memory, which for several years theyannually dressed with the flowers of spring and summer. But the world atlarge rejoiced in its delivery from the rule of a monster of iniquity. 

_THE SPORTS OF THE AMPHITHEATRE. _

In no other nation upon the earth and no other period of history hasenjoyment taken so cruel and brutal a shape as in the Roman empire. Thefierce people of the imperial city seemed to have a native thirst forblood and misery, which no amount of slaughter in the arena, of thesufferings of captives and slaves, or of the torments of persecutedChristians sufficed to assuage. The love of theatrical representations, which has proved so potent and unceasing with other nations, had but abrief period of prevalence in Rome, its milder enjoyment vanishingbefore the wild excitement of the gladiatorial struggle and thespectacle of rending beasts and slaughtered martyrs. 

It was not in the theatre, but in the amphitheatre, that the Romanssought their chief enjoyment, and few who wished the favor of the Romanpeople failed to seek it by the easy though costly means of gladiatorialshows. The amphitheatre differed from the theatre in forming a completecircle or oval instead of a semicircle, with an arena in the centreinstead of a stage at the side. It also greatly surpassed the theatre insize, the purpose being to see, not to hear. 

These buildings were at first temporary edifices of wood, but ofenormous size, since one which collapsed at Fidenæ, during the reign ofTiberius, is said to have caused the death of fifty thousand spectators. The first of stone was built by the command of Augustus. But the greatamphitheatre of Rome, the Flavian, whose mighty ruins we possess in theColosseum, was that begun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus ten yearsafter the destruction of Jerusalem. 

This vast building is elliptical in shape and covers about five acres ofground, being six hundred and twelve feet in its greatest length andfive hundred and fifteen in greatest breadth. It is based on rows ofarches, eighty in number, and rises in four different orders ofarchitecture to a height of about one hundred and sixty feet. Theoutside of this great edifice was encrusted with marble and decoratedwith statues. Interiorly its vast slopes presented sixty or eighty rowsof marble seats, covered with cushions, and capable of seating more thaneighty thousand spectators. There were sixty-four doors of entrance andexit, and the entrances, passages, and stairs were so skilfullyconstructed that every person could with ease and safety reach and leavehis place. 

Nothing was omitted that could add to the pleasure and convenience ofthe spectators. An ample canopy, drawn over their heads, protected themfrom the sun and the rain. Fountains refreshed the air with coolingmoisture, and aromatics profusely perfumed the air. In the centre wasthe arena or stage, strewn with fine sand, and capable of being changedto suit varied spectacles. Now it appeared to rise out of the earth, like the gardens of the Hesperides; now it was made to represent therocks and caverns of Thrace. Water was abundantly supplied by concealedpipes, and the sand-strewn plain might at will be converted into a widelake, sustaining armed vessels, and displaying the swimming monsters ofthe deep. 

In these spectacles the Roman emperors loved to display their wealth. Onvarious occasions the whole furniture of the amphitheatre was of amber, silver, or gold, and in one display the nets provided for defenceagainst wild beasts were of gold wire, the porticos were gilded, and thebelt or circle that divided the several ranks of spectators was studdedwith a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. In the dedication of thismighty edifice five thousand wild beasts were slain in the arena, thegames lasting one hundred days. 

The first show of gladiators in Rome was one given by Marcus and DeciusBrutus, on the occasion of the death of their father, 264 B. C. Threepairs of gladiators fought in this first contest. This gladiatorialspectacle was continued on funeral occasions, but afterwards lost itsreligious character and became a popular amusement, there being schoolsfor the training of gladiators, whose pupils were recruited from thecaptives of Rome, from condemned criminals, and from vigorous mendesirous of fame. 

As time went on the magnificence of these spectacles increased. JuliusCæsar gave one in which three hundred and twenty combatants fought. Trajan far surpassed this with a show that lasted for one hundred andtwenty-three days, and in which ten thousand men fought with each otheror with wild beasts for the pleasure of the Roman populace. 

The gladiators were variously armed, some with sword, shield, and bodyarmor; some with net and trident; some with noose or lasso. The disarmedor overthrown gladiator was killed or spared in response to signals madeby the thumbs of the spectators; while the successful combatant wasrewarded at first with a palm branch, afterwards with money and rich andvaluable presents. 

[Illustration: ROMAN CHARIOT RACE. ]

The gladiators were not always passive instruments of Roman cruelty. Wehave elsewhere described the revolt of Spartacus and his brave strugglefor liberty. Other outbreaks took place. During the reign of Probus arevolt of about eighty gladiators out of a school of some six hundredfilled Rome with death and alarm. Killing their keepers, they broke intothe streets, which they set afloat with blood, and only after anobstinate resistance and ample revenge were they at length overpoweredand cut to pieces by the soldiers of the city. But such outbreaks werebut few, and the Roman multitude usually enjoyed its cruel sports insafety. 

We cannot here describe the many remarkable displays made by successiveemperors, and which grew more lavish as time went on. Probus, about 280A. D. , gave a show in which the arena was transformed into a forest, large trees, dug up by the roots, being transported and plantedthroughout its space. In this miniature forest were set free a thousandostriches, and an equal number each of stags, fallow deer, and wildboars. These were given to the multitude to assail and slay at theirwill. On the following day, the populace being now safely screened fromdanger, there were slain in the arena a hundred lions, as manylionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears. 

The younger Gordian, in his triumphal games, astonished the Romans bythe strangeness of the animals displayed, in search of which the wholeknown world was ransacked. The curious mob now beheld the graceful formsof twenty zebras, and the remarkable stature of ten giraffes, broughtfrom remote African plains. There were shown, in addition, ten elks, asmany tigers from India, and thirty African hyenas. To these were added atroop of thirty-two elephants, and the uncouth forms of the hippopotamusof the Nile and the rhinoceros of the African wilds. These animals, familiar to us, were new to their observers, and filled the minds oftheir spectators with wonder and awe. 

Gladiators, as we have said, were not confined to slaves, captives, andcriminals. Roman citizens, emulous of the fame and rewards of thesuccessful combatant, entered their ranks, and men of birth and fortune, thirsting for the excitement of the arenal strife, were often seen inthe lists. In the reign of Nero, senators, and even women of high birth, appeared as combatants; and Domitian arranged a battle between dwarfsand women. As late as 200 A. D. An edict forbidding women to fight becamenecessary. 

The emperors, as a rule, were content with sending their subjects todeath in those frightful shows; but one of them, Commodus, proud of hisstrength and skill, himself entered the lists as a combatant. He was atfirst content with displaying his remarkable skill as an archer againstwild animals. With arrows whose head was shaped like a crescent, he cutasunder the long neck of the ostrich, and with the strength of his bowpierced alike the thick skin of the elephant and the scaly hide of therhinoceros. A panther was let loose and a slave forced to act as itsprey. But at the instant when the beast leaped upon the man the shaft ofCommodus flew, and the animal fell dead, leaving its prey unhurt. Noless than a hundred lions were let loose at once in the arena, and thedeath-dealing darts of the emperor hurtled among them until they allwere slain. 

During this exhibition of skill the emperor was securely protectedagainst any chance danger from his victims. But later, to the shame andindignation of the people, he entered the arena as a gladiator, andfought there no less than seven hundred and thirty-five times. He waswell protected, wearing the helmet, shield, and sword of the _Secutor_, while his antagonists were armed with the net and trident of the_Retiarius_. It was the aim of the latter to entangle his opponent inthe net and then despatch him with the trident, and if he missed he wasforced to fly till he had prepared his net for a second throw. 

As may be imagined, in these contests Commodus was uniformly successful. His opponents were schooled not to put forth their full skill, and wereusually given their lives in reward. But the emperor claimed the prizeof the successful gladiator, and himself fixed this reward at so high aprice that to pay it became a new tax on the Roman people. Commodus, wemay say here, met with the usual fate of the base and cruel emperors ofRome, falling by the hands of assassins. 

The gladiatorial shows were not without their opponents in Rome. Underthe republic efforts were made to limit the number of combatants and thefrequency of the displays, and the Emperor Augustus forbade more thantwo shows in a year. They were prohibited by Constantine, the firstChristian emperor, in 325 A. D. , but continued at intervals till 404. Inthat year Telemachus, an Asiatic monk, filled with horror at the crueltyof the practice, made his way to Rome, and during a contest rushed intothe arena and tried to part two gladiators. 

The spectators, furious at this interruption of their sport, stoned themonk to death. But the Emperor Honorius proclaimed him a martyr, andissued an edict which finally brought such exhibitions to an end. 

There was another form of spectacle at Rome, in its way as significantof cruelty and ruthlessness, the Triumph, each occasion of whichsignified some nation conquered or army defeated, and thousands slain orplunged into misery and destitution. The victorious general to whom thesenate granted the honor of a triumph was not allowed to enter the cityin advance, and Lucullus, on his return from victory in Asia, waitedoutside Rome for three years, until the desired honor was granted him. 

Starting from the Field of Mars, outside the city walls, the processionpassed through the gayly garlanded streets to the Capitol. It was headedby the magistrates and senate of Rome, who were followed by trumpeters, and then by the spoils of war, consisting not only of treasures andstandards, but of representations of battles, towns, fortresses, rivers, etc. 

Next came the victims intended for sacrifice, largely composed of whiteoxen with gilded horns. They were followed by prisoners kept to gracethe triumph, and who were put to death when the Capitol was reached. Afterwards came the gorgeous chariot of the conqueror, crowned withlaurel and drawn by four horses. He wore robes of purple and gold takenfrom the temple of Jupiter, carried a laurel branch in his right hand, and in his left a sceptre of ivory with an eagle at its tip. After himcame the soldiers, singing _Io triumphe_ and other songs of victory. 

On reaching the Capitol the victor placed the laurel branch on the capof the seated Jupiter, and offered the thank-offerings. A feast of thedignitaries, and sometimes of the soldiers and people, followed. Theceremony at first occupied one day only, but in later times was extendedthrough several days, and was frequently attended with gladiatorialshows and other spectacles for the greater enjoyment of the Romanmultitude. 

_THE REIGN OF A GLUTTON. _

The death of Nero cut all the reins of order in Rome. Until now, asstated in a preceding tale, some form of hereditary succession had beenfollowed, the emperors being of the family of Cæsar, though not hisdirect descendants. Now confusion reigned supreme. The army took uponitself the task of nominating the emperor, and within less than twoyears four emperors came in succession to the royal seat, each thegeneral of one of the armies of Rome. 

Galba, who headed the revolt against Nero, and succeeded him on thethrone, reigned but seven months, being overthrown by Otho, whoconspired against him with the Prætorian guards. The new emperor reignedonly three months. The army of Germany proclaimed theirgeneral--Vitellius--emperor, marched against Otho, and defeated him. Heended the contest by committing suicide. Vitellius reigned less than ayear. The army of the East rebelled against him, proclaimed theirgeneral--Vespasian--emperor, and a new civil war broke out, which wasclosed by the speedy downfall of Vitellius. It is the story of this man, emperor for less than a year, which we have here to describe. 

The three men named were alike unfit to reign over Rome. Galba was veryold and very incompetent, Otho was a declared profligate, and Vitelliuswas a glutton of such extraordinary powers that his name has become asynonyme for voracity. He had by his arts and his skill as a courtiermade himself a favorite with four emperors of widely differingcharacter, --Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. The suicide of Othohad now made him emperor himself, and he gave way without stint to thepeculiar vice which has made his name despicable, that of inordinatelove of the pleasures of the table. 

After the death of Otho, says Tacitus, "Vitellius, sunk in sloth, andgrowing every day more contemptible, advanced by slow marches towardsthe city of Rome. In all the villas and municipal towns through which hepassed, carousing festivals were sufficient to retard a man abandoned tohis pleasures. He was followed by an unwieldy multitude, not less thansixty thousand men in arms, all corrupted by a life of debauchery. Thenumber of retainers and followers of the army was still greater, alldisposed to riot and insolence, even beyond the natural bent of thevilest slaves. 

"The crowd was still increased by a conflux of senators and Romanknights, who came from Rome to greet the prince on his way; someimpelled by fear, others to pay their court, and numbers, not to bethought sullen or disaffected. All went with the current. The populacerushed forth in crowds, accompanied by an infamous band of pimps, players, buffoons, and charioteers, by their utility in viciouspleasures all well known and dear to Vitellius. 

"To supply so vast a body with provisions the colonies and municipalcities were exhausted; the fruits of the earth, then ripe and fit foruse, were carried off; the husbandman was plundered; and his land, as ifit were an enemy's country, was laid waste and ruined. "

[Illustration: THE COLISEUM AT ROME. ]

The followers of Vitellius were many of them Germans and Gauls, sosavage of aspect as to create consternation in Rome. "Covered with theskins of savage beasts, and wielding large and massive spears, thespectacle which they exhibited to the Roman citizens was fierce andhideous. " They were as savage as they looked, and many conflicts tookplace both outside and inside of Rome, in which numbers of citizens wereslaughtered. In fact, the march of Vitellius to Rome was almost likethat of a conqueror through a captive province. 

The conduct of Vitellius and his army in Rome was an abhorrent spectacleof sloth and licentiousness. All discipline vanished. The Germans andGauls entered into the vilest habits of the city, and by theirdisorderly lives brought on an epidemic disease which swept thousands ofthem away. Vitellius, lost in sluggishness and gluttony, wasted thefunds of the state on his pleasures, and laid severe taxes to raise newfunds. "To squander with wild profusion, " says Tacitus, "was the onlyuse of money known to Vitellius. He built a set of stables for thecharioteers, and kept in the circus a constant spectacle of gladiatorsand wild beasts; in this manner dissipating with prodigality, as if histreasury overflowed with riches. "

While the Vitellian army was indulging in riot, bloodshed, and vice, and the populace was kept amused by the frightful gladiatorial shows, the emperor spent his days in a sloth and gluttony that stand unrivalledin imperial records. We may quote from Whyte-Melville's romance of "TheGladiators" a sketch of a Vitellian banquet whose characteristicfeatures are taken from exact history:

"A banquet with Vitellius was no light and simple repast. Leagues of seaand miles of forest had been swept to furnish the mere groundwork of theentertainment. Hardy fishermen had spent their nights on the heavingwave, that the giant turbot might flap its snowy flakes on the emperor'stable broader than its broad dish of gold. Many a swelling hill, clad inthe dark oak coppice, had echoed to ringing shout of hunter anddeep-mouthed bay of hound, ere the wild boar yielded his grim life bythe morass, and the dark, grisly carcass was drawn off to provide astanding dish that was only meant to gratify the eye. Even the peacockroasted in its feathers was too gross a dainty for epicures who studiedthe art of gastronomy under Cæsar; and that taste would have beenconsidered rustic in the extreme which could partake of more than themere fumes and savor of so substantial a dish. A thousand nightingaleshad been trapped and killed, indeed, for this one supper, but brains andtongues were all they contributed to the banquet; while even the wing ofa roasted hare would have been considered far too coarse and common foodfor the imperial board. 

"It would be useless to go into the details of such a banquet as thatwhich was placed before the guests of Cæsar. Wild boar, pasties, goats, every kind of shell-fish, thrushes, beccaficoes, vegetables of alldescriptions, and poultry, were removed to make way for the pheasant, the guinea-hen, the capon, venison, ducks, woodcocks, and turtle-doves. Everything that could creep, fly, or swim, and could boast a delicateflavor when cooked, was pressed into the service of the emperor; andwhen appetite was appeased and could do no more, the strongestcondiments and other remedies were used to stimulate fresh hunger andconsume a fresh supply of superfluous dainties. "

Deep drinking followed, merely to stimulate fresh hunger. The disgustingstory is even told that the imperial glutton was in the habit of takingan emetic to empty his stomach, that he might begin a fresh course ofgluttony. 

Certain artists in the preparation of original dishes employedthemselves in devising new and appetizing compounds of food for thetable of Vitellius. They were sure of an ample reward if they shouldsucceed in pleasing the imperial palate. Failure, however, was attendedby a severe penance. The artist was not permitted to eat any food buthis own unsuccessful dish until he had atoned for his failure by asuccess. 

While Vitellius was thus sunk in sloth and gluttony his destiny was onits march. A terrible and disgraceful retribution awaited him. He hadnever been emperor of all the Roman empire. The army of Syria haddeclared for Vespasian, its general; and while Vitellius had beenwasting his means and ruining his army by permitting it to indulge inevery vice and excess, his rival in the East was carefully laying hisplans to insure success. He finally seized Alexandria, thus being ableat will to starve Rome, by cutting off its food-supply; and sentAntonius Primus, his principal general, with a strong force to Italy. 

The progress of Antonius in Italy was rapid. City after city fell intohis hands. The fleet at Ravenna declared for Vespasian. The general ofVitellius sought to carry his whole army over to Antonius, but found hismen more faithful than himself. The Vitellians were defeated in twobattles; Cremona was taken and destroyed; all was at risk; and yetVitellius remained absorbed in luxury. "Hid in the recess of his garden, he indulged his appetite, forgetting the past, the present, and allsolicitude about future events; like those nauseous animals that know nocare, and, while they are supplied with food, remain in one spot, torpidand insensible. "

At length awakened from his stupor, Vitellius took some steps fordefence. He was too late. His men deserted their ranks; the army ofAntonius steadily advanced. Filled with terror, the emperor called anassembly of the people and offered to resign. The people in violentuproar refused to accept his resignation. He then proposed to seek aretreat in his brother's house. This the populace also opposed andforced him to return to the palace. 

This attempted abdication brought civil war into the city. Sabinus, thebrother of Vespasian, raised a force and took possession of theCapitol. He was besieged here, and in the conflict that ensued theCapitol was set on fire and burned to the ground. It was the second timethis venerable edifice had been consumed by the flames. Sabinus wastaken prisoner, and was murdered by the mob. 

News of this revolt and its disastrous end hastened the march ofAntonius. Once more, as in the far-off days of the Gaulish invasion, Rome was to be attacked and taken by a hostile army. It was assailed atthree points, each of which was obstinately defended. Finally anentrance was made at the Collinian gate, and the battle was transferredto the open streets, in which the Vitellians defended themselves asobstinately as before. 

And now was seen an extraordinary spectacle. While two armies--one fromthe East, one from the North--contended fiercely for the possession ofRome, the populace of that city flocked to behold the fight, as if itwas a gladiatorial struggle got up for their diversion, and nothing inwhich they had any personal interest. Tacitus says, --

"Whenever they saw the advantage inclining to either side, they favoredthe contestants with shouts and theatrical applause. If the men fledfrom their ranks, to take shelter in shops or houses, they roared tohave them dragged forth and put to death like gladiators for theirdiversion. While the soldiers were intent on slaughter, these miscreantswere employed in plundering. The greatest part of the booty fell totheir share. Rome presented a scene truly shocking, a medley of savageslaughter and monstrous vice; in one place war and desolation; inanother bathing, riot, and debauchery. The whole city seemed to beinflamed with frantic rage, and at the same time intoxicated withbacchanalian pleasures. In the midst of rage and massacre, pleasure knewno intermission. A dreadful carnage seemed to be a spectacle added tothe public games. "

It was a spectacle certainly without its like in the history of nations. 

The battle ended in the complete overthrow of the army of Vitellius. Thecamp was taken, and all that defended it were slain. And now took placea scene which recalls that of the last days of Nero. Vitellius, seeingthat all was lost, was in an agony of apprehension. He left the palaceby a private way to seek shelter in his wife's house on the Aventine. Then irresolution brought him back to the palace, which he founddeserted. The slaves had fled. The dead silence that reigned filled himwith terror. All was solitude and desolation. He wandered pitiably fromroom to room, and finally, weary and utterly wretched, sought a humblehiding-place. Here he was discovered and dragged forth. 

And now the populace, who had lately refused his deposition, turned uponhim with the bitterest insults and contumely. With his hands boundbehind him and his garment torn, the obese old glutton was draggedthrough crowds who treated him with scoffs and words of contempt, not avoice of pity or sympathy being heard. A German soldier struck at himwith his sword, and, missing his aim, cut off the ear of a tribune. Hewas killed on the spot. 

As Vitellius was thus dragged onward, his captors, with swords pointedat his throat, forced him to raise his head and expose his bloated faceto scorn and derision. They made him look at his statues, which werebeing tumbled to the ground. They pointed out to him the place whereGalba had perished. They pricked his body with their weapons. Withendless contumely they brought him to the public charnel, where the bodyof Sabinus had been thrown among those of the vilest malefactors. 

A single expression is recorded as coming from his lips. "And yet, " hesaid, to a tribune who insulted his misery, "I have been yoursovereign. "

His torment soon ended. The rabble fell on him with swords and clubs andhe died under a multitude of wounds. Even after his death those who hadworshipped him in the height of his power continued to shower marks ofrage and contempt upon his remains. Thus perished one of the mostdespicable of all the emperors who disgraced Rome, to make room for onewhose wisdom and virtue would make still more contemptible the excessesof his gluttonous predecessor. 

_THE FAITHFUL EPONINA. _

Though Rome had extended its conquests over numerous tribes and nationsof barbarians, and reduced them to subjection, much of the old love ofliberty remained, and many of the later Roman wars were devoted to thesuppression of outbreaks among these unwilling subjects. In the reign ofVespasian occurred such a rebellion, followed by so remarkable aninstance of womanly devotion that it has since enlisted the sympathy ofthe world. 

Julius Sabinus, a leading chief among the Ligones, a tribe of the Gauls, led by ambition and daring, and stirred by hatred of the Roman dominion, resolved to shake off the yoke of conquest, and by his arts andeloquence kindled the flame of rebellion among his countrymen. Gatheringan army, he drove the Romans from the territory of his own people, andthen marched into the country of the Sequani, whom he hoped to bringinto the revolt. 

But the discomfiture of the Romans lasted only until they could bringtheir forces together. A battle ensued between the hastily-leviedfollowers of Sabinus and a disciplined Roman army, with the inevitableresult. The barbarians were defeated with great slaughter, the death ofmost, the flight of the others, bringing the rebellion to a disastrousend. 

Sabinus was among those who escaped the general carnage. He soughtshelter from his pursuers in an obscure cottage, and, being hotly andclosely tracked, he set fire to his lurking-place and caused a report tobe spread that he had perished in the flames. He had been attended inhis flight by two faithful freedmen, and one of these, Martialis byname, sought Eponina, the loving wife of the chief, and told her thather husband was no more, that he had perished in the flames of theburning hut. 

Giving full credit to the story, Eponina was thrown into a transport ofgrief which went far to convince the spies of Rome that she must havereceived sure tidings of her husband's death, and that Sabinus hadescaped the vengeance of Rome. For several days her grief continuedunabated, and then the same messenger returned and told her that herhusband still lived, having spread the report of his death to throw hispursuers off his track. 

This information brought Eponina as lively joy as the former news hadbrought her sorrow; but knowing that she was watched, she affected asdeep grief as before, going about her daily duties with all the outwardmanifestations of woe. When night came she visited Sabinus secretly inhis new hiding-place, and was received in his arms with all the joy ofwhich loving souls are capable. Before the dawn of day she returned toher home, from which her absence had not been known. 

During seven months the devoted wife continued these clandestine visits, softening by caresses and brave words her husband's anxious care, andsupplying his wants as far as she was capable. At the end of that timeshe grew hopeful of obtaining a pardon for the fugitive chief. For thispurpose she induced him to disguise himself in a way that made detectionimpossible and accompany her on a long and painful journey to Rome. 

Here the earnest and faithful woman made every possible effort to gainthe ear and favor of the emperor and to obtain influence in high places. She unhappily found that Roman officials had no time or thought to wasteon fugitive rebels, and that compassion for those who dared oppose thesupremacy of Rome was a sentiment that could find no place in theimperial heart. Repelled, disappointed, hopeless, the unhappy woman andher disguised husband retraced their long and weary journey, and Sabinusagain sought shelter in the dens and caves which formed his only secureplaces of refuge. 

And now the faithful wife, abandoning her home, joined him in hislurking-place, and for nine long years the devoted couple lived ashomeless fugitives, mutual love their only comfort, obtaining thenecessaries of life by means of which we are not aware. By the tenderestaffection Eponina softened the anxieties of her husband, the birth oftwo sons served still more to alleviate the misery of their distressfulsituation, and all the happiness that could possibly come to two socircumstanced attended the pair in their straitened place of refuge. 

At the end of nine years the hiding-place of the fugitives wasdiscovered by their enemies, and they were seized and sent in chains toRome. Here Vespasian, who had gained a reputation for kindness andclemency, acted with a cruelty worthy of the worst emperors of Rome. Thepitiable tale of the captives had no effect upon him; the devotion ofthe wife roused no sympathy in his heart; Sabinus had dared rebelagainst Rome, no time nor circumstance could soften that flagitiouscrime; without hesitation the chief was condemned to death, and instantexecution ordered. 

This cruel sentence changed the tone of Eponina. She had hitherto humblyand warmly supplicated her husband's pardon. Now that he was dead sheresolved not to survive him. With the spirit and pride of a free-bornprincess she said to Vespasian, "Death has no terror for me. I havelived happier underground than you upon your throne. You have robbed meof all I loved, and I have no further use for life. Bid your assassinsstrike their blow; with joy I leave a world which is peopled by suchtyrants as you. "

She was taken at her word and ordered by the emperor for execution. Itwas the darkest deed of Vespasian's life, a blot upon his characterwhich all his record for clemency cannot remove, and which has eversince lain as a dark stain upon his memory. 

Plutarch, who has alone told this story of love unto death, concludeshis tale by saying that there was nothing during Vespasian's reign tomatch the horror of this atrocious deed, and that, in retribution forit, the vengeance of the gods fell upon Vespasian, and in a short timeafter wrought the extirpation of his entire family. 

_THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM. _

Christ had not long passed away from the earth when the reign of peaceand brotherly love which He had so warmly inculcated ceased to exist onthe soil of Judæa. Forty years after He foretold the destruction of theTemple of Jerusalem that noble edifice had ceased to exist, Jerusalemitself was burned to the ground, and a million of people perished bysword and flames. It is this lamentable tale which we have now to tell. 

Caligula, the mad emperor, first roused the indignation of the Jews, bydemanding that his statue should be placed in that holy shrine in whichno image of man had ever been permitted. War would have followed, forthe Jews were resolute against such an impious desecration of theirTemple, had not the sword of the assassin removed the tyrant. 

But the discontent of the Jews was not ended. They were resolved that noimage of the Cæsars should be brought into their land, and carried thisso far that when the governor of Syria wished to march through a part oftheir territory to attack the Arabs, they objected that the standards ofthe legions were crowded with profane images, which their sacred lawsdid not permit to be seen in their country. The governor yielded totheir remonstrance, and marched around the land of Judæa. 

This concession did not allay the discontent. Felix, a governor underClaudius, by oppression and cruelty aroused a general spirit of revolt. Gessius Florus, appointed by Nero governor of Judæa, found his provincein a state of irritation and tumult. His avarice and robbery of thepeople ripened this to war. The province broke into open rebellion. Itwas quickly invaded by Gallus, the governor of Syria, who marchedthrough the country to the walls of Jerusalem. But he was not a soldier, and was quickly forced to abandon the siege and retreat in haste, losingsix thousand men in his flight. 

[Illustration: THE JEWS' WAILING PLACE, JERUSALEM. ]

Nero now, finding that Rome had an obstinate struggle on its hands, chose Vespasian, a soldier of renown, to conduct the war. This he didwith the true Roman energy and thoroughness, subduing the whole country, and capturing every stronghold except Jerusalem, within two years. Hewas called from this work to the struggle for the empire of Rome, leaving his able son Titus to complete the task. 

The taking of Jerusalem was not to be easily performed. The city was ofimmense strength. It stood upon two hills, Mount Sion to the south, Mount Acra to the north. The former, being the loftiest, was called theupper, and Acra the lower, city. Each of these hills was surrounded by awall of great strength and elevation, their bases washed by a rapidstream that ran through the valleys of Hinnom and Cedron, to the foot ofthe Mount of Olives. A third hill, Mount Moriah, was the seat of thefamous Temple, an immense group of courts and edifices which looked morelike a citadel than a sanctuary of religious faith. The true templestood separate, in the midst of these buildings, its interior beingdivided by a curtain into two parts, of which the inmost was the Holy ofHolies. The total group of edifices was nearly a mile in circumference. 

Jerusalem, unfortunately for its defence, had, during the conquest ofthe country, become filled with fugitives. To these the celebration ofthe Passover, now at hand, added other great numbers, so that when thearmy of Titus invested it, it was crowded with a vast multitude of humanbeings. Filled with religious enthusiasm, accustomed to war, andbelieving that the Lord of Hosts would come to their aid, the garrisondisplayed a desperate resolution that the Romans were to find verydifficult to overcome. 

Yet it was as much due to themselves as to the Roman arms that the cityat length fell. Resolute as the Jews were in defence against the foreignfoe, they were divided among themselves, the city being held by threefactions bitterly hostile to each other. One of these, known as theZealots, under Eleazer, held the Temple. Another, under John of Gisela, an artful orator but a man of infamous character, occupied anotherportion of the city. A third, whose leader was named Simon, a man knownfor crime and courage, held still another section. These three partieskept Jerusalem in tumult. There were ferocious battles in the streets;houses were plundered, families slain, and when Titus encamped beforethe walls, he had before him a city distracted by civil war and itsstreets filled with blood and carnage. 

The story of the siege of Jerusalem is far too long a one to be told indetail. Several times during the siege Titus offered terms of pardon andamnesty to the besieged, but all in vain. Divided as they were amongthemselves, they were united in hostility to Rome. The siege began andproceeded with the usual energy shown by a Roman army. Mounds wereerected, forts built, warlike engines constructed. Darts and otherweapons were rained into the city, great stones were flung from engines, every resource known to ancient war was practised. A breach was atlength made in the walls, the soldiers rushed in, sword in hand, and thesection of the city known as Salem was captured. Five days afterwardsBezetha, a hill to the north of the Temple, was taken by Titus, but hewas here so furiously assailed by the garrison that he was forced toretreat to his camp. 

Some days of quiet now followed, while the Romans prepared for a secondattack. The factions in the city, fancying that their foes had withdrawnin despair, at once resumed their feuds, and the streets again ran withblood. John invaded the Temple precincts, overcame the party of Eleazer, and a general massacre followed which desecrated With slaughter everypart of the holy place. 

Soon the Romans advanced again, and the two remaining factions united indefence. Now the Romans penetrated the city, now they were driven outin a fierce charge, and their camp nearly taken. And now famine came toadd to the horrors of the siege, and made frightful havoc in the densemultitude with which every part of the city was thronged. The dead anddying filled the streets, the wounded soldiers perished of starvation, groans and lamentations resounded in every quarter; to rid themselves ofthe hosts of dead John and Simon had them thrown from the walls, tofester in heaps before the Roman works. Among the scenes of horrorrelated, a woman was seen to kill and devour her own infant child. 

At length the Romans made such progress that all the city was theirsexcept the Temple enclosure, into which the remainder of the garrisonhad gathered. Titus wished to save this famous structure, and made alast effort to end the siege by peaceful measures. Josephus, the Jewishhistorian, who had been taken prisoner during the war, and was now inhis camp, was sent into the city, with an offer of amnesty if they wouldeven now yield. The offer was refused, and Titus saw that but one thingremained. 

On the next day the assault on Mount Moriah began. The Jews fought withfierce courage, but the close lines and steady discipline of the legionsprevailed. The defenders, after a bitter resistance, were forced back;the assailants furiously pursued; the inner court of the Temple wasentered; in the uproar of the furious strife the orders of Titus and hisofficers to save the Temple were unheard; all was tumult, the roar ofbattle, the shedding of blood. The Jews fought with frantic obstinacy, but their undisciplined valor failed to affect the steady discipline orbreak the close array of the legions. Many fled in despair to thesanctuary. Here were gathered priests and prophets, who still declaredthe Lord of Hosts was on their side, and that He would protect His holyseat. 

Even while these assurances were being given the assailants forced thegates. The eyes of the avaricious Romans rested on the golden andglittering ornaments of the Temple, and they sought more fiercely thanever to hew their way through flesh and blood to these alluringtreasures. One soldier, frantic with the fury of the fight, snatched aflaming ember from some burning materials, and, lifted by a comrade, setfire to a gilded window of the Temple. Almost in an instant the flamesflared upward, and the despairing Jews saw that their holy house wasdoomed. A great groan of agony burst from their lips. Many occupiedthemselves in vain efforts to quench the flames; others flung themselvesin despairing rage on the Romans, heedless of life now that all theylived for was perishing. 

Titus, on learning what had been done, ran in all haste to the scene, and loudly ordered the soldiers to extinguish the flames, signalling tothe same effect with his hand. But his voice was drowned in the uproarand his signals were not understood, while the thirst for plundercarried the soldiers beyond all restraint. The holy place of the Templewas still intact. This Titus entered, and was so impressed with itsbeauty and splendor that he made a strenuous effort to save it fromdestruction. In vain he begged and threatened. While some of thesoldiery tore with wolfish fury at its gold, others fired its gates, andsoon the Holy of Holies itself was in a blaze, and the whole Templewrapped in devouring flames. 

The rapacious soldiers raged through the buildings, rending from themeverything of value which the fire had left untouched. The defendersfell by thousands. Great numbers perished in the flames. A multitude offugitives, including women and children, sought refuge in the outercloisters. These were set on fire by the furious soldiers, and thousandswere swept away by the pitiless hand of death. Word was brought to Titusthat a number of priests stood on the outside wall, begging for theirlives. "It is too late, " he replied; "the priests ought not to survivetheir temple. " Retiring to an outer fort, he gazed with deep regret onthe devouring conflagration, saying, "The God of the Jews has foughtagainst them: to him we owe our victory. "

Thus perished the Temple of Jerusalem, a magnificent structure, for agesthe pride and glory of the Jews. First erected by Solomon, elevencenturies before, it was burnt by the Babylonians five hundred yearsafterwards. It was rebuilt by Haggai, in the reign of King Cyrus ofPersia, and had now stood more than six hundred years, enlarged andadorned from time to time. But Christ had said, "There shall not be leftone stone upon another that shall not be thrown down. " This propheticutterance was now fulfilled. Thenceforward there was no Temple of theJews. 

But more fighting remained. The defenders made their way into the uppercity on Mount Sion, and here held out bitterly still, rejecting theterms offered them by Titus of unconditional surrender. The place wasstrong, and defended by towers that were almost impregnable. Betterterms might have been extorted from Titus had John and Simon, theleaders of the party of defence, been as brave as they were blatant. Butafter refusing surrender they lost heart, and hid themselves insubterranean vaults, leaving their deluded followers to their owndevices. The end came soon. A breach was made in the walls. The legionsentered, sword in hand, and with the rage of slaughter in heart. Adreadful carnage followed. Neither sex nor age was spared. According toJosephus, not less than one million one hundred thousand personsperished during this terrible siege. Of those that remained alive themost flagrant were put to death, some were reserved to grace thevictor's triumph, and the others were sent to Egypt to be sold asslaves. As for the city, it had been in great part consumed by flames. Thus ended the rebellion of the Jews. To rule or ruin was the terriblemotto of Rome. 

_THE DESTRUCTION OF POMPEII. _

On the eastern margin of the Bay of Naples, where it serves as astriking background to the city of that name, stands the renownedVesuvius, the most celebrated volcano in the world. During manycenturies before the Christian era it had been a dead and silentmountain. Throughout the earlier period of Roman history the people ofCampania treated it with the contempt of ignorance, planting theirvineyards on its fertile slopes and building their towns and villagesaround its base. Under the shadow of the silent mountain armies met andfought, and its crater was made the fort and lurking-place of Spartacusand his party of gladiators. But the time was at hand in which a moreterrible enemy than a band of vengeful rebels was to emerge from thatthreatening cavity. 

The sleeping giant first showed signs of waking from his long slumber in63 A. D. , when earthquake convulsions shook the surrounding lands. Thesetremblings of the earth continued at intervals for sixteen years, doingmuch damage. At length, on the 24th of August of the year 79, came theculminating event. With a tremendous and terrible explosion the wholetop of the mountain was torn out, and vast clouds of steam and volcanicashes were hurled high into the air, lit into lurid light by the crimsongleams of the boiling lava below. 

The scene was a frightful one. The vast, tree-like cloud, kindledthroughout its length by almost incessant flashes of lightning; thefiery glare that gleamed upward from the glowing lava; the totaldarkness that overspread the surrounding country as the dense mass ofvolcanic dust floated outward, a darkness only relieved by the glarethat attended each new explosion, formed a spectacle of terror to makethe stoutest heart quail, and to fill the weak and ignorant with dreadof a final overthrow of the earth and its inhabitants. 

The elder Pliny, the famous naturalist, was then in command of a fleetat Misenum, in the vicinity. Led by his scientific interest, heapproached the volcano to examine the eruption more closely, and fell avictim to the falling ashes or the choking fumes of sulphur that filledthe air. His nephew, Pliny the younger, then only a boy of eighteen, hasgiven a lucid account of what took place, in letters to the historianTacitus. After describing the journey and death of his uncle, he goes onto speak of the violent earthquakes that shook the ground during thenight. He continues with the story of the next day:

"Though it was now morning, the light was exceedingly faint and languid;the buildings all around us tottered, and though we stood upon openground, yet, as the place was narrow and confined, there was noremaining there without certain and great danger; we therefore resolvedto leave the town. The people followed us in the utmost consternation, and, as to a mind distracted with terror every suggestion seems moreprudent than its own, pressed in great crowds about us in our way out. 

"Being got at a convenient distance from the houses, we stood still, inthe midst of a most dangerous and dreadful scene. The chariots which wehad ordered to be drawn out were so agitated backward and forward, though upon the most level ground, that we could not keep them steady, even by supporting them with large stones. The sea seemed to roll backupon itself, and to be driven from its banks by the convulsive motion ofthe earth; it is certain, at least, that the shore was considerablyenlarged, and several sea-animals were left upon it. At the other side ablack and dreadful cloud, bursting with an igneous serpentine vapor, darted out a long train of fire, resembling flashes of lightning, butmuch larger. . . . 

"Soon afterwards the cloud seemed to descend and cover the whole ocean, as indeed it entirely hid the island of Capreæ and the promontory ofMisenum. My mother strongly conjured me to make my escape at any rate, which, as I was young, I might easily do; as for herself, she said, herage and corpulence rendered all attempts of that sort impossible. However, she would willingly meet death if she could have thesatisfaction of seeing that she was not the occasion of mine. But Iabsolutely refused to leave her, and, taking her by the hand, I led heron; she complied with great reluctance, and not without many reproachesto herself for retarding my flight. 

"The ashes now began to fall on us, though in no great quantity. Iturned my head, and observed behind us a thick smoke, which came rollingafter us like a torrent. I proposed, while we yet had any light, to turnout of the high-road, lest she should be pressed to death in the dark bythe crowd that followed us. We had scarce stepped out of the path whendarkness overspread us, not like that of a cloudy night or when there isno moon, but of a room when it is shut up and all the lights extinct. Nothing then was to be heard but the shrieks of women, the screams ofchildren, and the cries of men; some calling for their children, othersfor their parents, others for their husbands, and only distinguishingeach other by their voices; one lamenting his own fate, another that ofhis family; some wishing to die from the very fear of dying; somelifting their hands to the gods; but the greater part imagining that thelast and eternal night was come, which was to destroy the gods and theworld together. 

"Among these were some who augmented the real terrors by imaginary ones, and made the frightened multitude falsely believe that Misenum was inflames. At length a glimmering light appeared, which we imagined to berather the forerunner of an approaching burst of flames, as in truth itwas, than the return of day. However, the fire fell at a distance fromus; then again we were immersed in thick darkness, and a heavy shower ofashes rained upon us, which we were obliged every now and then to shakeoff, otherwise we should have been crushed and buried in the heap. Imight boast that during all this scene of horror not a sigh orexpression of fear escaped from me, had not my support been found inthat miserable, though strong, consolation, that all mankind wereinvolved in the same calamity, and that I imagined I was perishing withthe world itself. 

"At last this dreadful darkness was dissipated by degrees, like a cloudof smoke; the real day returned, and even the sun appeared, though veryfaintly, and as when an eclipse is coming on. Every object thatpresented itself to our eyes seemed changed, being covered over withwhite ashes, as with a deep snow. "

This graphic story repeats the experience of thousands on that fataloccasion, in which great numbers perished, while many lost their all. Villas of wealthy Romans were numerous in the vicinity of the volcano, while among the several towns which surrounded it three were utterlydestroyed, --Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiæ. Of these much the mostfamous is Pompeii, which, being buried in ashes, has proved far easierof exploration than Herculaneum, which was overwhelmed with torrents ofmud, caused by heavy rains on the volcanic ash. 

Pompeii was an old town, built more than six hundred years before, andoccupied at the time of its destruction by the aristocracy of Rome. Triumphal arches were erected there in honor of Caligula and Nero, whoprobably honored it by visits. It possessed costly temples, handsometheatres and other public buildings, luxurious residences, and all theostentatious magnificence arising from the wealth of the proudpatricians of Rome. 

[Illustration: THE RUINS OF POMPEII. ]

What Pompeii was in its best days we are not now able to estimate. Itwas essentially, in its architecture, a Greek city, rich and artistic, gay and luxurious. But on February 5, 63 A. D. , came the first of thelong series of earthquakes, and when it ended nearly all of old Pompeiiwas levelled with the ground. It was not yet a lost city, but was athoroughly ruined one. In the years that followed it was rapidlyrebuilt, Roman architecture and decoration, of often tawdry and inferiorcharacter, replacing the chaste and artistic Greek. Once more the citybecame a centre of gayety, ostentation, and licentiousness, when, in 79A. D. , the eruption of Vesuvius came, and the overwhelming storm of ashescame down like a thick-descending fall of snow on the doomed city. 

The description given by Pliny relates to a less endangered point. UponPompeii the ashes settled down in seemingly unending volumes, continuingfor three days, during which all was enveloped in darkness and gloom. The citizens fled in terror, such as were able to, though many perishedand were buried deep in their ruined homes. On the fourth day the sunbegan to reappear, as if shining through a fog, and the bolder fugitivesreturned in search of their lost property. 

What they saw must have been frightfully disheartening. Where the busycity had stood was now a level plain of white ashes, so deep that not ahouse-top could be seen, and only the upper walls of the great theatreand the amphitheatre were visible. Digging into the fleecy ashes, manyof them recovered articles of value, while thieves also may have reapeda rich harvest. The emperor Titus even undertook to clear and rebuildthe city, but soon abandoned the task as too costly a one, and for manycenturies afterwards Pompeii remained buried in mud and ashes, lost tothe world, its site forgotten, and the forms of many of its oldinhabitants preserved intact in the bed of ashes in which they hadperished. 

It was only in 1748 that its site was recognized, and only since 1860has there been a systematic effort to dig the old city out of its grave. At present nearly one-half--the most important half--of Pompeii has beenlaid bare, and we are able to see for ourselves how the Romans lived. The narrow streets, fourteen to twenty-four feet wide, are well pavedwith blocks of lava, which are cut into deep ruts by the wheels ofchariots that rolled over them two thousand years ago. On each side risethe walls of houses, two, and sometimes three, stories in height, andsome of them richly painted and adorned, while walls and columns arebrightly painted in red, blue, and yellow, which must have given the oldcity a gay and festive hue. 

The ornaments, articles of furniture, and domestic utensils found inthese houses go far to teach us the modes of life in Roman times, andreveal to us that the Romans possessed many comforts and conveniencesfor which we had not given them credit. Even the forms of theinhabitants have in many cases been recovered. Though these forms havelong vanished, the hollows made by their bodies in the hardened ashes inwhich they lay and slowly decayed have remained unchanged, and bypouring liquid plaster of Paris into these cavities perfect casts havebeen obtained, showing the exact shape of face and body, and even everyfold of the clothes of these victims of Vesuvius eighteen hundred yearsago. They are not altogether pleasant to see, for they express the agonyof those caught in the swift descending death of the falling volcanicshroud, but as tenants of an archæological museum they stand unrivalledin lifelike fidelity. 

Herculaneum, which was buried to a depth of from forty to one hundredfeet, and with wet material which has grown much harder than the ashesof Pompeii, has been but little explored. It was the larger and moreimportant city of the two, while none of its treasures could have beenrecovered by their owners. The art relics found there far exceed ininterest and value those of Pompeii, but the work is so difficult thatas yet very little has been done in the task of restoring this "deadcity of Campania" to the light of the modern day. 

_AN IMPERIAL SAVAGE. _

We have now reached the period in which began the decline and fall ofthe Roman empire. Its story is crowded with events, but lacks thosedramatic and romantic incidents which give such interest to the historyof early Rome. Now good emperors ruled, now bad ones followed, now peaceprevailed, now war raged; the story grows monotonous as we advance. Thereigns of virtuous emperors yield much to commend but little todescribe; those of wicked emperors repel us by their enormities anddisgust us by their follies. We must end our tales with a few selectionsfrom the long and somewhat dreary list. 

[Illustration: EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS. ]

After Vespasian came to the throne, a period of nearly two centurieselapsed during most of which Rome was governed by men of virtue andability, though cursed for a time by the reigns of the cruel Domitian, the dissolute Commodus, the base Caracalla, and the foolish Elagabalus. Fortunately, none of the monsters who disgraced the empire reigned long. Assassination purified the throne. The total length of reign of thecruel monarchs of Rome covered no long space of time, though they occupya great space in history. 

We have now to tell how the patrician families of Rome lost their holdupon the throne, and a barbarian peasant became lord and master of thisvast empire, of which his ancestors of a few generations before hadperhaps scarcely heard. The story is an interesting one, and well worthrepeating. 

Just after the year 200 A. D. The emperor Septimius Severus, father ofthe notorious Caracalla, while returning from an expedition to the East, halted in Thrace to celebrate, with military games, the birthday ofGeta, his youngest son. The spectacle was an enticing one, and thecountry-people for many miles round gathered in crowds to gaze upontheir sovereign and behold the promised sports. 

Among those who came was a young barbarian of such gigantic stature andgreat muscular development as to excite the attention of all who sawhim. In a rude dialect, which those who heard could barely understand, he asked if he might take part in the wrestling exercises and contendfor the prize. This the officers would not permit. For a Roman soldierto be overthrown by a Thracian peasant, as seemed likely to be theresult, would be a disgrace not to be risked. But he might try, if hewould, with the camp followers, some of the stoutest of whom were chosento contend with him. Of these he laid no less than sixteen, insuccession, on the ground. 

Here was a man worth having in the ranks. Some gifts were given him, andhe was told that he might enlist, if he chose; a privilege he was quickto accept. The next day the peasant, happy in the thought of being asoldier, was seen among a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting inrustic fashion, while his head towered above them all. 

The emperor, who was passing in the march, looked at him with interestand approval, and as he rode onward the new recruit ran up to his horse, and followed him on foot during a long and rapid journey without theleast appearance of fatigue. 

This remarkable endurance astonished Severus. "Thracian, " he said, "areyou prepared to wrestle after your race?"

"Ready and willing, " answered the youth, with alacrity. 

Some of the strongest soldiers of the army were now selected and pittedagainst him, and he overthrew seven of them in rapid succession. Theemperor, delighted with this matchless display of vigor and agility, presented him with a golden collar in reward, and ordered that he shouldbe placed in the horse-guards that formed his personal escort. 

The new recruit, Maximin by name, was a true barbarian, though born inthe empire. His father was a Goth, his mother of the nation of theAlani. But he had judgment and shrewdness, and a valor equal to hisstrength, and soon advanced in the favor of the emperor, who was a goodjudge of merit. Fierce and impetuous by nature, experience of the worldtaught him to restrain these qualities, and he advanced in positionuntil he attained the rank of centurion. 

After the death of Severus the Thracian served with equal fidelity underhis son Caracalla, whose favor and esteem he won. During the shortreign of the profligate and effeminate Elagabalus, Maximin withdrewfrom the court, but he returned when Alexander Severus, one of thenoblest of Roman emperors, came to the throne. The new monarch wasfamiliar with his ability and the incidents of his unusual career, andraised him to the responsible post of tribune of the fourth legion, which, under his rigid care, soon became the best disciplined in thewhole army. He was the favorite of the soldiers under his command, whobestowed on their gigantic leader the names of Ajax and Hercules, andrejoiced as he steadily rose in rank under the discriminating judgmentof the emperor. Step by step he was advanced until he reached thehighest rank in the army, and, but for the evident marks of his savageorigin, the emperor might have given his own sister in marriage to theson of his favorite general. 

The incautious emperor was nursing a serpent. The favors poured upon theThracian peasant failed to secure his fidelity, and only nourished hisambition. He began to aspire to the highest place in the empire, whichhad been won by many soldiers before him. Licentiousness and profligacyhad sapped the strength of the army during the weak preceding reigns, and Alexander sought earnestly to overcome this corruption and restorethe rigid ancient discipline. It was too great a task for one of hislenient disposition. The soldiers were furious at his restrictions, manymutinies broke out, his officers were murdered, his authority was widelyinsulted, he could scarcely repress the disorders that broke out in hisimmediate presence. 

This sentiment in the army offered the opportunity desired by Maximin. He sent his emissaries among the soldiers to enhance their discontent. For thirteen years, said these men, Rome had been governed by a weakSyrian, the slave of his mother and the senate. It was time the empirehad a man at its head, a real soldier, who could add to its glory andwin new treasures for his followers. 

Alexander had been engaged in a war with Persia. He had no soonerreturned than an outbreak in Germany forced him to hasten to the Rhine. Here a large army was assembled, made up in part of new levies, whosetraining in the art of war was given to the care of Maximin. Thediscipline exacted by Alexander was no more acceptable to the soldiershere than elsewhere, and the secret agents of the ambitious Thracianfound fertile ground for their insinuations. 

At length all was ripe for the outbreak. One day--March 19, 239 A. D. --asMaximin entered the field of exercise, the troops suddenly saluted himas emperor, and silenced by violent exclamations his obstinate show ofrefusal. The rebels rushed to the tent of Alexander and consummatedtheir conspiracy by striking him dead. His most faithful friendsperished with him; others were dismissed from court and army; and somesuffered the cruelest treatment from the unfeeling usurper. Thus it wasthat the imperial dignity descended from the noblest citizens of Rome toa peasant of a distant province of barbarian origin. It was one of themost striking steps in the decline of the empire. 

The new emperor was a man of extraordinary physical powers. He is saidto have been more than eight feet in height, while his strength andappetite were in accordance with his gigantic stature. It is stated thathe could drink seven gallons of wine and eat thirty or forty pounds ofmeat in a day, and could move a loaded wagon with his arms, break ahorse's leg with his fist, crumble stones in his hands, and tear upsmall trees by the roots. His mental powers did not accord with hisphysical ones. He was savage of aspect, ignorant of civilized arts, destitute of accomplishments, and ruthless in disposition. 

He had the virtues of the camp, and these had endeared him to thesoldiers, but his barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and hisrudeness and ignorance were the contempt of cultivated people, and hadgained him many rebuffs in his humbler days. He was now in a position torevenge himself, not only on the haughty nobles who had treated him withcontempt, but even on former friends who were aware of his meanorigin, --of which he was heartily ashamed. For both these crimes manywere put to death, and the slaughter of several of his formerbenefactors has stained the memory of Maximin with the basestingratitude. 

Rome, in the strange progress of its history, had raised a savage to theimperial seat, and it suffered accordingly. A scion of the despisedbarbarians of the northern forests was now its emperor, and he visitedon the proud citizens of Rome the wrongs of his ancestors. The suspicionand cruelty of Maximin were unbounded and unrelenting. A consularsenator named Magnus was accused of a conspiracy against his life. Without trial or opportunity for defence Magnus was put to death, withno less than four thousand supposed accomplices. 

This was but an incident in a frightful reign of terror. The emperorkept aloof from his capital, but he filled Rome, and the whole empire, in fact, with spies and informers. The slightest accusation or suspicionwas sufficient for the blood-thirsty tyrant. On a mere unproved chargeRoman nobles of the highest descent--men who had served as consuls, governed provinces, commanded armies, enjoyed triumphs--were seized, chained on the public carriages, and borne away to the distant camp ofthe low-born tyrant. 

Here they found neither justice nor compassion. Exile, confiscation, andordinary execution were mild measures with Maximin. Some of theunfortunates were clubbed to death, some exposed to wild beasts, somesewed in the hides of slaughtered animals and left to perish. The worstenormities of Caligula and Nero were rivalled by this rude soldier, who, during the three years of his reign, disdained to visit either Rome orItaly, and permitted no men of high birth, elegant accomplishments, orknowledge of public business to approach his person. His imperial seatshifted from a camp on the Rhine to one on the Danube, and his sole ideaof government seems to have been the execution of the suspected. 

It was the great that suffered, and to this the people were indifferent. But they all felt his avarice. The soldiers demanded rewards, and theempire was drained to supply them. By a single edict all the stored-uprevenue of the cities was taken to supply Maximin's treasury. Thetemples were robbed of their treasures, and the statues of gods, heroes, and emperors were melted down and converted into coin. A general cry ofindignation against this impiety rose throughout the Roman world, and itwas evident that the end of this frightful tyranny was approaching. 

An insurrection broke out in Africa. It was supported in Rome. But itended in failure, the Gordians, father and son, who headed it, wereslain, and the senate and nobles of Rome fell into mortal terror. Theylooked for a frightful retribution from the imperial monster. With thecourage of despair they took the only step that remained: two newemperors, Maximus and Balbinus, were appointed, and active steps takento defend Italy and Rome. 

There was no time to be lost. News of these revolutionary movements hadroused in Maximin the rage of a wild beast. All who approached hisperson were in danger, even his son and nearest friends. Under hiscommand was a large, well-disciplined, and experienced army. He was asoldier of acknowledged valor and military ability. The rebels, withtheir hasty levies and untried commanders, had everything to fear. 

They took judicious steps. When the troops of Maximin, crossing theJulian Alps, reached the borders of Italy, they were terrified by thesilence and desolation that prevailed. The villages and open towns hadbeen abandoned, the bridges destroyed, the cattle driven away, theprovisions removed, the country made a desert. The people had gatheredinto the walled cities, which were plentifully provisioned andgarrisoned. The purpose of the senate was to weaken Maximin by famineand retard him by siege. 

The first city assailed was Aquileia, It was fully provisioned andvigorously defended, the inhabitants preferring death on their walls todeath by the tyrant's order. Yet Rome was in imminent danger. Maximinmight at any moment abandon the siege of a frontier city and march uponthe capital. There was no army capable of opposing him. The fate of Romehung upon a thread. 

The hand of an assassin cut that thread. The severity of the weather, the growth of disease, the lack of food, had spread disaffection throughMaximin's army. Ignorant of the true state of affairs, many of thesoldiers feared that the whole empire was in arms against them. Thetyrant, vexed at the obstinate defence of Aquileia, visited his anger onhis men, and roused a stern desire for revenge. The end came soon. Aparty of Prætorian guards, in dread for their wives and children, whowere in the camp of Alba, near Rome, broke into sudden revolt, enteredMaximin's tent, and killed him, his son, and the principal ministers ofhis tyranny. 

The whole army sympathized with this impulsive act. The heads of thedead, borne on the points of spears, were shown the garrison, and atonce the gates were thrown open, the hungry troops supplied with food, and a general fraternization took place. Joy in the fall of the tyrantwas universal throughout the empire, the two new emperors entered Romein a triumphal procession, people and nobles alike went wild withenthusiasm, and the belief was entertained that a golden age was tosucceed the age of iron that had come to an end. Yet within three monthsafterwards both the new emperors were massacred in the streets of Rome, and the hoped-for era of happiness and prosperity vanished before theswelling tide of oppression, demoralization, and decline. 

_THE DEEDS OF CONSTANTINE. _

In the century that followed the reign of Maximin great changes cameupon the empire of Rome. The process of decline went steadily on. Thecity of Rome sank in importance as the centre of the empire. The armieswere recruited from former barbarian tribes; many of the emperorsreigned in the field; the savage inmates of the northern forests, hitherto sternly restrained, now began to gain a footing within theborders; the Goths plundered Greece; the Persians took Armenia; the dayof the downfall of the great empire was coming, slowly but surely. Oneimportant event during this period, the rebellion of Zenobia and theruin of Palmyra, we have told in "Tales of Greece. " There are two otherevents to be told: the rise of Christianity, and the founding of a newcapital of the empire. 

From the date of the death of Christ, the Christian religion madecontinual progress in the city and empire of Rome. Despite the contemptwith which its believers were viewed, despite the persecution to whichthey were subjected, despite frequent massacres and martyrdoms, theirnumbers rapidly increased, and the many superstitions of the empiregradually gave way before the doctrines of human brotherhood, infinitelove and mercy, and the eternal existence and happiness of those whobelieved in Christ and practised virtue. By the time of the accession ofthe great emperor Constantine, 306 A. D. , the Christians were so numerousin the army and populace of the empire that they had to be dealt withmore mercifully than of old, and their teachings were no longer confinedto the lowly, but ascended to the level of the throne itself. 

The traditional story handed down to us is that Constantine, in hisstruggle with Maxentius for the empire of the West, saw in the sky, above the mid-day sun, a great luminous cross, marked with the words, "_In hoc signo vinces_" ("In this sign conquer"). The whole army beheldthis amazing object; and during the following night Christ appeared tothe emperor in a vision, and directed him to march against his enemiesunder the standard of the cross. Another writer claims that a whole armyof divine warriors were seen descending from the sky, and flying to theaid of Constantine. 

[Illustration: ARCH OF TITUS, ROME. ]

It may be said that both these stories, though told by devout authors, greatly lack probability. But, whatever the cause, Constantine became aprofessed Christian, and as such availed himself of the enthusiasticsupport of the Christians of his army. By an edict issued at Milan, 313A. D. , he gave civil rights and toleration to the Christians throughoutthe empire, and not long afterwards proclaimed Christianity the religionof the state, though the pagan worship was still tolerated. 

This highly important act of Constantine was followed by another ofgreat importance, the establishment of a new capital of the Romanempire, one which was destined to keep alive some shadow of that empirefor many centuries after Rome itself had become the capital of a kingdomof barbarians. On the European bank of the Bosphorus, the channel whichconnects the Sea of Marmora with the Black Sea, had for ages stood thecity of Byzantium, which played an important part in Grecian history. 

On the basis of this old city Constantine resolved to build a new one, worthy his greatness. The situation was much more central than that ofRome, and was admirably chosen for the government of an empire thatextended as far to the east in Asia as to the west in Europe, while itwas at once defended by nature against hostile attack and open to thebenefits of commercial intercourse. This, then, was the site chosen forthe new capital, and here the city of Constantinople arose. 

We have, in our first chapter, described how Romulus laid out the wallsof Rome. With equally impressive ceremonies Constantine traced those ofthe new capital of the empire. Lance in hand, and followed by a solemnprocession, the emperor walked over a route of such extent that hisassistants cried out in astonishment that he had already exceeded thedimensions of a great city. 

"I shall still advance, " said Constantine, "till He, the invisible guidewho marches before me, thinks proper to stop. "

From the eastern promontory to that part of the Bosphorus known as the"Golden Gate, " the city extended along the strait about three Romanmiles. Its circumference measured between ten and eleven, the spaceembraced equalling about two thousand acres. Upon the five hillsenclosed within this space, which, to those who approach Constantinople, rise above each other in beautiful order, was built the new city, thechoicest marble and the most costly and showy materials being abundantlyemployed to add grandeur and splendor to the natural beauty of the site. 

A great multitude of builders and architects were employed in raisingthe walls and building the edifices of the imperial city, while thetreasures of the empire were spent without stint in the effort to makeit an unequalled monument. In that day the art of architecture hadgreatly declined, but for the adornment of the city there were to be hadthe noblest productions the world had ever known, the works of the mostcelebrated artists of the age of Pericles. 

These were amply employed. To adorn the new city, the cities of Greeceand Asia were despoiled of their choicest treasures of art. In the Forumwas placed a lofty column of porphyry, one hundred and twenty feet inheight, on whose summit stood a colossal statue of Apollo, supposed tobe the work of Phidias. In the stately circus or hippodrome, the spacebetween the goals, round which the chariots turned in their swiftflight, was filled with ancient statues and obelisks. Here was also atrophy of striking historical value, the bodies of three serpentstwisted into a pillar of brass, which once supported the golden tripodthat was consecrated by the Greeks in the temple of Delphi after thedefeat of Xerxes. It still exists, as the choicest antiquarian relic ofthe city. 

The palace was a magnificent edifice, hardly surpassed by that of Romeitself. The baths were enriched with lofty columns, handsome marbles, and more than threescore statues of brass. The city contained numbers ofother magnificent public buildings, and over four thousand nobleresidences, which towered above the multitude of plebeian dwellings. Asfor its wealth and population, these, in less than a century, vied withthose of Rome itself. 

With such energy did Constantine push the work on his city that itsprincipal edifices were finished in a few years, --or in a few months, asone authority states, though this statement seems to lack probability. This done, the founder dedicated his new capital with the mostimpressive ceremonies, and with games and largesses to the people of thegreatest pomp and cost. An edict, engraved on a marble column, gave tothe new city the title of Second or New Rome. But this official titledied, as the accepted name of the city, almost as soon as it was born. Constantinople, the "city of Constantine, " became the popular name, andso it continues till this day in Christian acceptation. In reality, however, the city has suffered another change of name, for its presentpossessors, the Turks, know it by the name of Stambol. 

An interesting ceremony succeeded. With every return of the birthday ofthe city, a statue of Constantine, made of gilt wood and bearing in itsright hand a small image of the genius of the city, was placed on atriumphal car, and drawn in solemn procession through the Hippodrome, attended by the guards, who carried white tapers and were dressed intheir richest robes. When it came opposite the throne of the reigningemperor, he rose from his seat, and, with grateful reverence, paidhomage to the statue of the founder. Thus it was that Byzantium wasreplaced by Constantinople, and thus was the founder of the new capitalheld in honor. 

_THE GOTHS CROSS THE DANUBE. _

The doom of Rome was at hand. Its empire had extended almost inimitablyto the east and west, had crossed the sea and deeply penetrated thedesert to the south, but had failed in its advances to the north. TheRhine and the Danube here formed its boundaries. The great forest regionwhich lay beyond these, with its hosts of blue-eyed and fair-skinnedbarbarians, defied the armies of Rome. Here and there the forest waspenetrated, hundreds of thousands of its tenants were slain, yet Romefailed to subdue its swarming tribes, and simply taught them theprinciple of combination and the art of war. Early in the history ofRome it was taken and burnt by the Gauls. Raids of barbarians across theborder were frequent in its later history. As Rome grew weaker, thetribes of the north grew bolder and stronger. The armies of the empirewere kept busy in holding the lines of the Rhine and the Danube. Atlength Roman weakness and incompetency permitted this barrier to bebroken, and the beginning of the end was at hand. This is the importantevent which we have now to describe. 

In the year 375 A. D. There existed a great Gothic kingdom in the north, extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea, under the rule of an ablemonarch named Hermanric, who had conquered and combined numerous tribesinto a single nation. On this nation, just as assassination removed theGothic conqueror, descended a vast and frightful horde from northernAsia, the mighty invasion of the Huns, which was to shake to its heartthe empire of Rome. 

The Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) were conquered by this savage horde. TheVisigoths (Western Goths), stricken with mortal fear, hurried to theDanube and implored the Romans to save them from annihilation. For manymiles along the banks of the river extended the panic-strickenmultitude, with outstretched arms and pathetic lamentations, praying forpermission to cross. If settled on the waste lands of Thrace they wouldpledge themselves to be faithful subjects of Rome, to obey its laws andguard its limits. 

Sympathy and pity counselled the emperor to grant the request. Politicalconsiderations bade him refuse. To admit such a host of warlikebarbarians to the empire was full of danger. Finally they were permittedto cross, under two stringent conditions: they must deliver up theirarms, and they must yield their children, who were to be taken to Asia, educated, and held as hostages. Such was the first fatal step in theoverthrow of Rome. 

The task of crossing was a difficult one. The Danube there was more thana mile wide, and had been swollen with rains. A large fleet of boats andvessels was provided, but it took many days and nights to transport themighty host, and numbers of them were swept away and drowned by therapid current. Probably the whole multitude numbered nearly a million, of whom two hundred thousand were warriors. 

Of the conditions made only one was carried out. The children of theGoths were removed, and taken to the distant lands chosen for theirresidence. But the arms were not given up. The Roman officers werebribed to let the warriors retain their weapons, and in a short time agreat army of armed barbarians was encamped on the southern bank of theDanube. 

These new subjects of Rome were treated in a way well calculated toconvert them into enemies. The officials of Thrace disobeyed the ordersof the emperor, sold the Goths the meanest food at extravagant prices, and by their rapacious avarice bitterly irritated them. While this wasgoing on, the Ostrogoths also appeared on the Danube, and solicitedpermission to cross. Valens, the emperor, refused. He was beginning tofear that he had already too many subjects of that race. But thediscontent of the Visigoths had drawn the soldiers from the stream andleft it unguarded. The Ostrogoths seized vessels and built rafts. Theycrossed without opposition. Soon a new and hostile army was encampedupon the territory of the Roman empire. 

The discontent of the Visigoths was not long in breaking into open war. They had marched to Marcianopolis, seventy miles from the Danube. HereLupicinus, one of the governors of Thrace, invited the Gothic chiefs toa splendid entertainment. Their guards remained under arms at theentrance to the palace. But the gates of the city were closely guarded, and the Goths outside were refused the use of a plentiful market, towhich they claimed admission as subjects of Rome. 

The citizens treated them with insult and derision. The Goths grewangry. Words led to blows. A sword was drawn, and the first blood shedin a long and ruinous war. Lupicinus was told that many of his soldiershad been slain. Heated with wine, he gave orders that they should berevenged by the death of the Gothic guards at the palace gates. 

The shouts and groans in the street warned Fritigern, the Gothic king, of his danger. At a word from him his comrades at the banquet drew theirswords, forced their way from the palace and through the streets, and, mounting their horses, rode with all speed to their camp, and told theirfollowers what had occurred. Instantly cries of vengeance and warlikeshouts arose, war was resolved upon by the chiefs, the banners of thehost were displayed, and the sound of the trumpets carried afar thehostile warning. 

Lupicinus hastily collected such troops as he could command and advancedagainst the barbarians; but the Roman ranks were broken and the legionsslaughtered, while their guilty leader was forced to fly for his life. "That successful day put an end to the distress of the barbarians andthe security of the Romans, " says a Gothic historian. 

The imprudence of Valens had introduced a nation of warriors into theheart of the empire; the venality of the officials had converted theminto enemies; Valens, instead of seeking to remove their causes ofhostility, marched with an army against them. We cannot here describethe various conflicts that took place. It will suffice to say that otherbarbarians crossed the Danube, and that even some of the Huns joined thearmy of Fritigern. The borders of the empire were effectually broken, and the forest myriads swarmed unchecked into the empire. 

On August 9, 378, the Emperor Valens, inspired by ambition and moved bythe demands of the ignorant multitude, left the strong walls ofAdrianople and marched to attack the Goths, who were encamped twelvemiles away. The result was fatal. The Romans, exhausted with theirmarch, suffering from heat and thirst, confused and ill-organized, metwith a complete defeat. The emperor was slain on the field or burnt todeath in a hut to which he had been carried wounded, hundreds ofdistinguished officers perished, more than two-thirds of the army weredestroyed, and the darkness of the night only saved the rest. Valens hadbeen badly punished for his imprudence and the Romans for theirvenality. 

This signal victory of the Goths was followed by a siege of Adrianople. But the barbarians knew nothing of the art of attacking stone walls, andquickly gave up the impossible task. From Adrianople they marched toConstantinople, but were forced to content themselves with ravaging thesuburbs and gazing, with impotent desire, on the city's distantsplendor. Then, laden with the rich spoils of the suburbs, they marchedsouthward through Thrace, and spread over the face of a fertile andcultivated country extending as far as the confines of Italy, theircourse being everywhere marked with massacre, conflagration, and rapine, until some of the fairest regions of the empire were turned almost intoa desert. It may be that the numbers of Romans who perished from thisinvasion equalled those of the Goths whom imprudent compassion haddelivered from the Huns. 

As regards the children of the Goths, who had been distributed in theprovinces of Asia Minor, there remains a cruel story to tell. Thoughgiven the education and taught the arts of the Romans, they did notforget their origin, and the suspicion arose that they were plotting torepeat in Asia the deeds of their fathers in Europe. Julius, whocommanded the troops after the death of Valens, took bloody measures toprevent any such calamity. The youthful Goths were bidden to assemble, on a stated day, in the capital cities of their provinces, the hintbeing given that they were to receive gifts of land and money. On theappointed day they were collected unarmed in the Forum of each city, thesurrounding streets being occupied by Roman troops, and the roofs of thehouses covered with archers and slingers. At a fixed hour, in all thecities, the signal for slaughter was given, and in an hour more not oneof these helpless wards of Rome remained alive. The cruel treachery ofthis blood-thirsty act remains almost unparalleled in history. 

_THE DOWNFALL OF ROME. _

Theodosius, the great and noble emperor who succeeded Valens, pacifiedand made quiet subjects of the Goths. He died in 395, and before theyear ended the Gothic nation was again in arms. At the first sound ofthe trumpet the warriors, who had been forced to a life of labor, deserted their fields and flocked to the standards of war. The barriersof the empire were down. Across the frozen surface of the Danube flockedsavage tribesmen from the northern forests, and joined the Gothic hosts. Under the leadership of an able commander, the famous Alaric, thebarbarians swept from their fields and poured downward upon Greece, insearch of an easier road to fortune than the toilsome one of industry. 

Many centuries had passed since the Persians invaded Greece, and the menof Marathon and Thermopylæ were no more. Men had been posted to defendthe world-famous pass, but, instead of fighting to the death, likeLeonidas and his Spartans of old, they retired without a blow, and leftGreece to the mercy of the Goth. 

Instantly a deluge of barbarians spread right and left, and the wholecountry was ravaged. Thebes alone resisted. Athens admitted Alaricwithin its gates, and saved itself by giving the barbarian chief a bathand a banquet. The other famous cities had lost their walls, andCorinth, Argos, and Sparta yielded without defence to the Goths. Thewealth of the cities and the produce of the country were ravaged withoutstint, villages and towns were committed to the flames, thousands of theinhabitants were borne off to slavery, and for years afterwards thetrack of the Goths could be traced in ruin throughout the land. 

By a fortunate chance Rome possessed at that epoch a great general, thefamous Stilicho, whose military genius has rarely been surpassed. He hadbefore him a mighty task, the forcing back of the high tide of barbarianoverflow, but he did it well while he lived. His death brought ruin onRome. Stilicho hastened to Greece and quickly drove the Goths from thePeloponnesus. But jealousy between Constantinople and Rome tied hishands, he was recalled to Italy, and the weak emperor of the Eastrewarded the Gothic general for his destructive raid by making himmaster-general of Illyricum. 

Alaric, fired by ambition, used his new power in forcing the cities ofhis dominion to supply the Goths with the weapons of war. Then, Greeceand the country to the north having been devastated, he turned his armsagainst Italy, and about 400 A. D. Appeared at the foot of the JulianAlps, the first invader who had threatened Italy since the days ofHannibal, six hundred years before. 

There were at that time two rulers of the Roman empire, --Arcadius, emperor of the East, and Honorius, emperor of the West. The latter, acoward himself, had a brave man to command his armies, --Stilicho, whohad driven the Goths from Greece. But Italy, though it had a general, was destitute of an army. To meet the invading foe, Stilicho was forcedto empty the forts on the Rhine, and even to send to England for thelegion that guarded the Caledonian wall. With the army thus raised hemet the Gothic host at Pollentia, and defeated them with frightfulslaughter, recovering from their camp many of the spoils of Greece. Another battle was fought at Verona, and the Goths were again defeated. They were now forced to retire from Italy, Stilicho and the emperorentered Rome, and that capital saw its last great triumph, and gloriedin a revival of its magnificent ancient games. 

[Illustration: THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS. ]

In these games the cruel combat of gladiators was shown for the lasttime to the blood-thirsty populace of Rome. The edict of Constantine hadfailed to stop these frightful sports. The appeal of a Christian poetwas equally without effect. A more decisive action was necessary, and itcame. In the midst of these bloody contests an Asiatic monk, namedTelemachus, rushed into the arena and attempted to separate thegladiators. He paid for his rashness with his life, being stoned todeath by the furious spectators, with whose pleasure he had dared tointerfere. But his death had its effect. The fury of the people wasfollowed by shame. Telemachus was looked upon as a martyr, and thegladiatorial shows came to an end, the emperor abolishing forever thespectacle of human slaughter and human cruelty in the amphitheatre ofRome. 

Rome triumphed too soon. Its ovation to victory was the expiring gleamin its long career of glory and dominion. Its downfall was at hand. Fight as it might in Italy, the gate-ways of the empire lay open in thenorth, and through them still poured barbarian hordes. The myriads ofthe Huns, rushing in a devouring wave from the borders of China, made amighty stir in the forest region of the Baltic and the Danube. In theyear 406 a vast host of Germans, known by the names of Vandals, Burgundians, and Suevi, under a leader named Rhodogast, or Radagaisus, crossed the Danube and made its way unopposed to Italy. Multitudes ofGoths joined them, till the army numbered not less than two hundredthousand fighting men. 

As the flood of barbarians rushed southward through Italy, many citieswere pillaged or destroyed, and the city of Florence sustained its firstrecorded siege. Alaric and his Goths were Christians. Radagaisus and hisGermans were half-savage pagans. Florence, which had dared oppose them, was threatened with utter ruin. It was to be reduced to stones andashes, and its noblest senators were to be sacrificed on the altars ofthe German gods. The Florentines, thus threatened, fought bravely, butthey were reduced to the last extremity before deliverance came. 

Stilicho had not been idle during this destructive raid. By callingtroops from the frontiers, by arming slaves, and by enlisting barbarianallies, he was at length able to take the field. He led the _last_ armyof Rome, and dared not expose it to the wild valor of the savage foe. Onthe contrary, he surrounded their camp with strong lines which defiedtheir efforts to break through, and waited till starvation should forcethem to surrender. 

Florence was relieved. The besiegers were in their turn besieged. Theirbravest warriors were slain in efforts to break the Roman lines. Radagaisus surrendered to Stilicho, and was instantly executed. Such ofhis followers as had not been swept away by famine and disease were soldas slaves. The great host disappeared, and Stilicho a second time wonthe proud title of Deliverer of Italy. 

But the whole army of Radagaisus was not destroyed. Half of it hadremained in the north. These were forced by Stilicho to retreat fromItaly. But Gaul lay open to their fury. That great and rich section ofthe empire was invaded and frightfully ravaged, and its conquerors neverafterwards left its fertile fields. The empire of Rome ceased to existin the countries beyond the Alps, those great regions which had been wonby the arms of Marius and Cæsar. 

And now the time had come for Rome to destroy itself. The mind of theemperor was poisoned against Stilicho, the sole remaining bulwark of hispower. He had sought to tie the hands of Alaric with gifts of power andgold, and was accused of treason by his enemies. The weak Honorius gaveway, and Stilicho was slain. His friends shared his fate, and thecowardly imbecile who ruled Rome cut down the only safeguard of histhrone. 

The result was what might have been foreseen. In a few months after thedeath of Stilicho, Alaric was again in Italy, exasperated by the badfaith of the court, which had promised and not performed. There was noarmy and no general to meet him. City after city was pillaged. Avoidingthe strong walls of Ravenna, behind which the emperor lay secure, hemarched on Rome, led his army under the stately arches, adorned with thespoils of countless victories, and pitched his tents beneath the wallsof the imperial city. 

Six hundred and nineteen years had passed since a foreign foe had gazedupon those proud walls, within which lay the richest and most splendidcity of the world, peopled by a population of more than a million souls. But Rome was no longer the city which had defied the hosts of Hannibal, and had sold at auction, for a fair price, the very ground on which thegreat Carthaginian had pitched his tent. Alaric was not a Hannibal, butmuch less were the Romans of his day the Romans of the past. 

Instead of striking for the honor of Rome, they lay and starved withintheir walls until thousands had died in houses and streets. No army cameto their relief, and in despair the senate sent delegates to treat withthe king of the Goths. 

"We are resolved to maintain the dignity of Rome, either in peace orwar, " said the envoys, with a show of pride and valor. "If you will notyield us honorable terms, you may sound your trumpets and prepare tofight with myriads of men used to arms and with the courage of despair. "

"The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed, " answered Alaric, with aloud and insulting laugh. 

He then named the terms on which he would retreat, --_all_ the gold andsilver in the city; _all_ the rich and precious movables; _all_ theslaves who were of barbarian origin. 

"If such are your demands, " asked the envoys, now reduced to supplianttones, "what do you intend to leave us?"

"Your _lives_, " said Alaric, in haughty tones. 

The envoys retired, trembling with fear. 

But Alaric moderated his demands, and was bought off by the payment offive thousand pounds of gold, thirty thousand pounds of silver, fourthousand robes of silk, three thousand pieces of scarlet cloth, andthree thousand pounds of pepper, then a costly and favorite spice. Thegates were opened, the hungry multitude was fed, and the Gothic armymarched away, but it left Rome poor. 

What followed is too long to tell. Alaric treated for peace with theministers of the emperor. But he met with such bad faith and so manyinsults that exasperation overcame all his desire for peace, and oncemore the army of the Goths marched upon Rome. 

The crime and folly of the court of Honorius at Ravenna had at lastbrought about the ruin of the imperial city. The senate resolved ondefence; but there were traitors within the walls. At midnight theSalarian Gate was silently opened, and a chosen band of barbariansentered the streets. The tremendous sound of the Gothic trumpet arousedthe sleeping citizens to the fact that all was lost. Eleven hundred andsixty-three years after the foundation of Rome, and eight hundred yearsafter its capture by the Gauls, it had again become the prey ofbarbarians, and the imperial mistress of the world was delivered to thefury of the German and Gothic hordes. 

Alaric, while permitting his followers to plunder at discretion, badethem to spare the lives of the unresisting; but thousands of Romans wereslain, and the forty thousand slaves who had joined his ranks revengedthemselves on their former masters with pitiless rage. Conflagrationadded to the horrors, and fire spread far over the captured city. TheGoths held Rome only for six days, but in that time depleted itfrightfully of its wealth. The costly furniture, the massive plate, therobes of silk and purple, were piled without stint into their wagons, and numerous works of art were wantonly destroyed. 

But Alaric and many of his followers were Christians, and the treasuresof the Church escaped. A Christian Goth broke into the dwelling of anaged woman, and demanded all the gold and silver she possessed. To hisastonishment, she showed him a hoard of massive plate, of the mostcurious workmanship. As he looked at it with wonder and delight, shesolemnly said, --

"These are the consecrated vessels belonging to St. Peter. If youpresume to touch them, your conscience must answer for the sacrilege. For me, I dare not keep what I am not able to defend. "

The Goth, struck with awe by her words, sent word to Alaric of what hehad found, and received an order that all this consecrated treasureshould be transported without damage to St. Peter's Church. A remarkablespectacle, never before seen in a captured city, followed. From theQuirinal Hill to the distant Vatican marched a long train of devoutGoths, bearing on their heads the sacred vessels of gold and silver, andguarded on each side by a detachment of their armed companions, whilethe martial shouts of the barbarians mingled with the hymns of devotees. A crowd of Christians flocked from the houses to join the procession, and through its sheltering aid a multitude of fugitives escaped to thesecure retreat of the Vatican. 

Not satisfied with plundering the city, the conquerors ended by sellingits citizens, save those who could ransom themselves, for slaves. Manyof these were redeemed by the benevolent, but as a result of the takingof Rome hosts of indigent fugitives were scattered through the empire, from Italy to Syria. 

From this time forward the Western Empire of Rome was the prey ofbarbarians. In 451 the Huns under Attila invaded Gaul, besieged Orleans, and were defeated at Châlons in the last great victory of Rome. In thefollowing year Attila invaded Italy, and Rome was only saved from theworst of horrors by a large ransom. Three years afterwards, in 455, anarmy of Vandals, who had invaded Africa, sailed to Italy, and Rome wasagain taken and sacked. For fourteen days and nights the pillagecontinued, and when it ended Rome was stripped bare of treasure; theChristian churches, which had been spared by the Goths, beingmercilessly plundered by these heathen conquerors. 

A few years more and the Western Empire of Rome came to an end. In theyear 476 or 479, Augustulus, the last emperor, was forced to resign, andOdoacer, a barbarian chief, assumed the title of King of Italy. As forthe Eastern Empire, it maintained a half-life for nearly a thousandyears after, Constantinople being finally taken by the Turks, and madethe capital of Turkey, in 1453. 

 THE END.