[Illustration: A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC. ]

HERZEGOVINA;

OR

OMER PACHA AND THE CHRISTIAN REBELS. 

WITH A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SERVIA, ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIALCONDITION. 

BY LIEUT. G. ARBUTHNOT, R. H. A. , F. R. G. S. 

[Illustration: Official Seal of Omer Pacha]

LONDON:LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, ROBERTS, & GREEN. 1862. 

PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. NEW-STREET SQUARE

PREFACE. 

The wanderings of an unknown in an unknown land may not be a subject ofuniversal interest, and as such require a few words of apology, orpossibly of defence. 

To convey an accurate idea of a country the inhabitants of which differfrom ourselves in creed, origin, and in all their habits of life, itwould be necessary to have passed a lifetime amongst them. It maytherefore be deemed presumptuous in me to attempt so comprehensive atask, upon the meagre experience of a few short months. And such itwould be, did I entertain such aspirations. The impossibility, however, of identifying myself with a people, with whose very language I have buta slight acquaintance, would banish such a thought. My object is ratherto describe briefly and simply everything that presented itself to myown notice; upon the evidence of which, coupled with the observations ofthe few who have devoted any attention to the condition of thesecountries, I have founded my views and opinions. Far be it from me toassume that they have more claim to be regarded as correct, than theopinions of others who may differ from me. Above all, if any of myremarks on the subject of the Greek and Latin religions should appearsomewhat severe, I would have it clearly understood, that nowhere isallusion intentionally made to these churches, save in the relationwhich they bear to the Illyric Provinces of European Turkey. 

[Illustration: Signature of Author in Turkish Characters]

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--ItalianPatriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--DalmatianBoatmen--French Policy and Austrian Prospects--Spalatro--Palace of Diocletian--Lissa--NavalAction--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian Hotel--Change of Plans Pages 1--15

CHAPTER II. 

Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port ofKlek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of theNarenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities forTrade granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--HungarianCorporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel--Dalmatian Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival atMostar--Omer Pacha--Object of Campaign 16--32

CHAPTER III. 

Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji AliPacha--Forests--Austrian Timber Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--FranciscanCollege--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour 33--49

CHAPTER IV. 

Introduction of Christianity--Origin of SlavonicElement--First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--TheirOrigin--Tenets--Elect a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in Spirit--Turkish Conquest--BosnianApostasy--Religious Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission underKiamil Pacha--Servian Emissaries--National Customs--AdoptedBrotherhood--Mahommedan Women--Elopements--Early Marriages 50--64

CHAPTER V. 

Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication ofSoil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--NaturalCapabilities of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian_Scutors_--Other Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relationswith Bosnia--Able Administration of Omer Pacha--Austriatakes alarm--Trade Statistics--Imports--Exports--FrontierDuties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms 65--75

CHAPTER VI. 

Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis--Its Constitution and Functions--Criminal and CommercialTribunals--Revenue and Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh--Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total Revenue--Police 76--83

CHAPTER VII. 

Omer Pacha--Survey of Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars--Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of Prisoners--RomanBridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish Officers--Pacha'sPalace--European Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor'sDay--Warlike Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Ordersto March 84--93

CHAPTER VIII. 

Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. And OstoyaChristich--Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich--HisTomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a RomanProvince--Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans--Janissaries--Fallof Sultan Selim and Bairaktar--Mahmoud--JelaludinPacha--Expedition against Montenegro--Death ofJelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces reconquered--Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of Janissaries--Regular Troops organised--Hadji Mustapha--Abdurahim--Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh rising--Serayevotaken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of Adrianople--HusseinKapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of Grand Vizier--AliAga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War withMontenegro--Amnesty granted 94--117

CHAPTER IX. 

Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and HungarianRebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congressconvened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of OmerPacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down bySpahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, andCapture of Ali--His suspicious Death--CavassBashee--Anecdote of Lame Christian--Omer Pacha invadesMontenegro--Successes--Austria interferes--Mission ofGeneral Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change ofFrontier--Faults of new Boundary 118--127

CHAPTER X. 

Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villagesburnt--Christian Version--Account given by DervischPacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages byRebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--GreekChapels sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored toFavour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficultiesto be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha andPrince of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pachareturns to Mostar--Preparations for Campaign 128--140

CHAPTER XI. 

Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz--Castle and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of theStolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--MyDalmatian Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force ofthe Turks--Health of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation ofPrisoners--Christian Cruelty 141--164

CHAPTER XII. 

Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turksabandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--RussianInfluence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--EuropeanIntervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement ofHostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani--Bashi Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning inTurkey--Line of March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--NationalDance--'La Donna _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--HakkiBey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big Head--Old Tower--Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem Devotions--Characterof Turkish Troops--System of Drill--Peculation--TurkishArmy--Letters--Scarcity of Provisions--Return of Villagers 155--173

CHAPTER XIII. 

Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--EngineerOfficers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--WallackColonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain ofNiksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--TurkishWomen--Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis 174--189

CHAPTER XIV. 

Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemyrepulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--TurkishSoldiers murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--EntrenchedCamp assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--DistinctiveCharacter of Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation--Military Uniforms--Return to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum--Express Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified Barrack--Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--EuropeanCommission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into ChristianGrievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction ofChristian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--TheMeredits--Instincts of Race 190--214

CHAPTER XV. 

Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza--Subterraneous Passage--Duck-shooting--RomanTombs--Coins and Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--MulberryTrees--Blagai--Source of Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plainof Mostar--Legends--Silver Ore--Mineral Products ofBosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley of the Drechnitza 215--226

CHAPTER XVI. 

Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats ofSkill--Legend of Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley ofDruga--Excavations--Country Carts--Plain of Duvno--MahmoudEffendi--Old Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--BosnianFrontier--Vidosa--Parish Priest--National Music--Livno--Franciscan Convent--Priestly Incivility--Illness--QuackMedicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military Ambulance--BosnaSerai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and Bridges--MussulmanRising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman Pacha 227--242

CHAPTER XVII. 

Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The Bosna--TroutFishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--FrozenRoads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on theSave--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--CūlpaRiver--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway toTrieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of AustrianTroops--Probable Policy--Watermills--Semlin--Belgrade 243--258

SERVIA:

Its Social, Political, and Financial Condition 261--285

CONCLUSION 286

APPENDIX 287--288

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

A MOONLIGHT BIVOUAC _Frontispiece. _

OFFICIAL SEAL OF OMER PACHA _On Title-page. _

SIGNATURE OF AUTHOR IN TURKISH CHARACTERS _page_ vi

MAP OF MONTENEGRO _To face page_ 1

MAP OF SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY " 288

[Illustration: Map of Montenegro. ]

HERZEGOVINA. 

CHAPTER I. 

 Object of Travels--Start--Mad Woman--Italian Patriot--Zara--Sebenico--Falls of Kerka--Dalmatian Boatmen--French Policy and Austrian Prospects--Spalatro--Palace of Diocletian--Lissa--Naval Action--Gravosa--Ragusa--Dalmatian Hotel--Change of Plans. 

_'Omer Pacha will proceed with the army of Roumelia to quell thedisturbance in Herzegovina. '_ Such, I believe, was the announcementwhich confirmed me in the idea of visiting the Slavonic provinces ofEuropean Turkey. Had any doubts existed in my mind of the importanceattached by the Ottoman government to the pacification of these remotedistricts, the recall to favour of Omer Pacha, and the despatch of solarge a force under his command, would have sufficed to remove them. Asit was, the mere desire to keep myself _au courant_ of the events of theday, together with the interest which all must feel in the condition ofa country for whom England has sacrificed so much blood and treasure, had made me aware that some extraordinary manifestation of feeling musthave occurred to arouse that apathetic power to so energetic a measure. Of the nature of this manifestation, little or no reliable informationcould be obtained; and so vague a knowledge prevails touching thecondition of these provinces, that I at once perceived that personalobservation alone could put me in possession of it. The opinions of suchas did profess to have devoted any attention to the subject, were mostconflicting. Whilst some pronounced the point at issue to be merely onebetween the Turkish government and a few rebellious brigands, otherstook a far more gloomy view of the matter, believing that the first shotfired would prove the signal for a general rising of the Christiansubjects of the Porte, which, in its turn, was to lead to thedestruction of Turkish suzerainty in Europe, and to the consummation ofthe great Panslavish scheme. To satisfy myself on these points, then, was the main object of my travels, --to impart to others the informationwhich I thus obtained, is the intention of this volume. 

On August 31, 1861, I left Trieste in the Austrian Lloyd's steamer, bound for Corfu, and touching _en route_ at the ports on the Dalmatiancoast. Having failed in all my endeavours to ascertain the exactwhereabouts of the Turkish head-quarters, I had secured my passage toRagusa, reckoning on obtaining the necessary information from theOttoman Consul at that town; and in this I was not disappointed. 

It is not my intention to enlarge upon this portion of my travels, whichwould indeed be of little interest; still less to tread in the steps ofSir Gardner Wilkinson, whose valuable work on Dalmatia has rendered sucha course unnecessary; but rather to enter, with log-like simplicity, thedates of arrival and departure at the various ports, and such-likeinteresting details of sea life. If, however, my landsman-likepropensities should evince themselves by a lurking inclination to 'hugthe shore, ' I apologise beforehand. 

My fellow-passengers were in no way remarkable, but harmless enough, even including an unfortunate mad woman, whose mania it was to recountunceasingly the ill-treatment to which she had been exposed. At times, her indignation against her imaginary tormentors knew no bounds; atothers, she would grow touchingly plaintive on the subject of herwrongs. That she was a nuisance, I am fain to confess; but the treatmentshe experienced at the hands of her Dalmatian countrymen wasinconsiderate in the extreme. One who professed himself an advocate forsudden shocks, put his theory into practice by stealing quietly behindhis patient, and cutting short her lugubrious perorations with a delugeof salt water. This was repeated several times, but no arguments wouldinduce her to allow her wet clothes to be removed, so it would not besurprising if this gentleman had succeeded in 'stopping her tongue'beyond his expectations. The only other lady was young and ratherpretty, but dismally sentimental. She doated on roses, was enamoured ofcamelias, and loved the moon and the stars, and in fact everything inthis world or out of it. In vain I tried to persuade her that her coughbetrayed pulmonary symptoms, and that night air in the Adriatic wasinjurious to the complexion. 

The man-kind on board included an Austrian officer of engineers, aFrench Consul, and a Dalmatian professor. Besides the above, there wasan Italian patriot, whose devotion to the 'Kingmaker' displayed itselfin a somewhat eccentric fashion. With much mystery, he showed me aportrait of Garibaldi, secreted in a watchkey seal, while his waistcoatbuttons and shirt studs contained heads of those generals who served inthe campaign of the Two Sicilies. It was rather a novel kind ofhero-worship, though, I fear, likely to be little appreciated by him whoinspired the thought. 

_September 1. _--Landed at Zara at 6. 30 A. M. , and passed a fewhours in wandering over the town and ramparts. These last are by nomeans formidable, and convey very little idea of the importance whichwas attached to the city in the time of the Venetian Republic. Thegarrison is small, and, as is the case throughout Dalmatia, the soldiersare of Italian origin. The Duomo is worthy of a visit; while theantiquarian may find many objects of interest indicative of the severalphases of Zarantine history. Here, in a partially obliteratedinscription, he may trace mementos of Imperial Rome; there, theCampanile of Santa Maria tells of the dominion of Croatian kings; whilethe winged lion ever reminds him of the glory of the Great Republic, itstriumphs, its losses, and its fall. On leaving we were loudly cheered bythe inhabitants, who had collected in large numbers on the shore. A fewhours' run brought us abreast of Fort St. Nicholas, and ten minuteslater we dropped anchor in the harbour of Sebenico. Here the delight ofthe people at our arrival was somewhat overwhelming. It vented itself inan inordinate amount of hugging and kissing, to say nothing of the mostpromiscuous hand-shaking, for a share of which I myself came in. Myfirst step was to negotiate with four natives to row me to the Falls ofKerka, about three hours distant. This I had succeeded in doing, when, having unfortunately let them know that I was English, they demandedseven florins in place of four, as had been originally agreed. Resolvingnot to give way to so gross an imposition, I was returning in quest ofanother boat, when I met a troop of some six or seven girls, young, more than averagely good-looking, and charmingly dressed in theirnational costume. I presume that my T. G. Appearance must have amusedthem; for they fairly laughed, --not a simpering titter, but a goodhonest laugh. To them I stated my case, and received a proper amount ofsympathy. One offered to row me herself, while another said somethingabout 'twenty florins and a life, '--which, whatever it may have meant, brought a blush to the cheek of the pretty little volunteer. At thisjuncture the boatmen arrived, and on my assurance that I was perfectlysatisfied with the company to which they had driven me, which my looks, I suppose, did not belie, they came to terms. Leaving the bay at its NW. Extremity, where the Kerka flows into it, we proceeded about four milesup that river. At this point it opens out into the Lake of Scardona, which is of considerable size, and affords a good anchorage. There is anoutlet for the river to the N. , close to which is situated the littletown of Scardona. The banks of the river here begin to lose their rockyand precipitous appearance, assuming a more marshy character, whichrenders it unhealthy in the summer. The Falls are approached by a longstraight reach, at the end of which they form a kind of semicircle, theentire breadth being about 250 feet. In winter, or after heavy rains, the effect must be very grand; but at the time of my visit they were, inconsequence of the great drought, unusually small. Below the falls is amill worked by a Levantine, who appears to drive a flourishing trade, grinding corn for Sebenico, Zara, and many other places on the coast. 

The Dalmatian boatmen are a very primitive set in everything save moneymatters. One asked, Are the English Christians? while another assertedmost positively, that he had taken an Englishman to see the Falls in theyear _1870_. Their style of rowing resembles that in vogue among theMaltese and Italians, excepting that they make their passenger sit inthe hows of the boat. This, at any rate, has the advantage of keepinghim to windward of themselves, which is often very desirable. Anotherpoint of difference is, that they wear shoes or slippers, --the latterbeing, in some instances, really tasteful and pretty. 

The moon was high ere we reached the ship, where I found all thepassengers assembled upon deck. One after another they disappearedbelow, until I was left alone. I know no spot so conducive to reflectionas the deserted deck of a ship at anchor on a lovely night, and in agenial latitude. In this instance, however, my thoughts assumed more ofa speculative than retrospective character, large as was the field forthe indulgence of the latter. The shades of emperors and doges fadedaway, giving place to the more terrestrial forms of living sovereigns;and the wild shouts of the Moslem conquerors resolved themselves intothe 'Vive l'Empereur' of an army doing battle for an idea. Let Austrialook to herself, that, when the hour of struggle shall arrive, as arriveit will, she be not found sleeping. Should Napoleon once more espousethe Italian cause, should he hurl his armies upon the Quadrilateral, whocan doubt but that a diversion of a more or less important characterwill be attempted in the rear of the empire? But even though he shouldlet slip the notable occasion presented to him by a rising among theItalian subjects of Austria, the evil day will only be postponed. Ibelieve that, not content with the humiliation of that power atVillafranca, he will take advantage of any opportunity which disorder inthe neighbouring Turkish provinces may offer him to aim a blow at her onher Dalmatian frontier, as a means to the gigantic end of crippling her, and with her ultimately the entire German Confederation. It is a greatscheme, and doubtless one of many in that fertile brain. If Austriashould resolve to defend her Venetian territory, as it may be presumedshe will, she should spare no labour to strengthen her fortresses in theAdriatic. On the Dalmatian coast, Zara, Lissa, Pola, and Cattaro are allcapable of making a very respectable defence in the event of their beingattacked; while, to quote the words of Rear-Admiral Count Bernhard vonWüllersdorf and Urban, 'An Austrian squadron at Cattaro would be verydangerous to any hostile squadron on the Italian coast, as its cruiserswould cut off all transports of coal, provisions, &c. &c. , --in a word, render the communication of the hostile squadron with the Mediterraneanvery difficult. .. . Lissa is the keystone of the Adriatic. This island, the importance of which in former times was never denied, commands thestraits which lead from the southern to the northern half of theAdriatic. .. . The naval force at Lissa ought to be a local one, consisting of light fast gun-boats to cruise in the narrow waters, towhich might be added some plated ships to keep open communications, onthe one hand, between Lissa and the mainland, and on the other handacting with the gun-boats to bar the passage to hostile vessels. ' Thepublication of the article from which the above is extracted in the'Oesterreichische Militar Zeitschrift, ' proves sufficiently that theAustrian government is aware of the necessity which exists for takingprecautionary measures; and the lesson which they learnt in 1859 oughtto have induced them to adopt a more energetic policy in their militaryand naval affairs. 

The defences of Sebenico consist of three small forts: St. Nicholas, containing seventeen mounted guns, is at the entrance of the bay, whileSan Giovanni and Santa Anna, situated on rising ground, command thetown, harbour, and land approaches. The precise number of guns whichthey contain, I was unable to learn. The very meagre character of theinformation which I am in a position to impart on these subjectsrequires, I am aware, some apology. The difficulty of obtaining itduring the short stay of a steamer must be my excuse. May it beaccepted!

_September 2. _--Steamed into the port of Spalatro at 10. 30 A. M. There is both an outer and inner harbour, the latter affording a goodanchorage to vessels of any burden; yet, notwithstanding this, we werecompelled, for the first time since leaving Trieste, to lie off at somedistance from the quay. The origin of Spalatro dates from the buildingof the palace of Diocletian in 303, A. D. This glorious pile, however much it may offend against the rules of architecture, is wellentitled to rank among the noblest monuments of imperial Rome. Itsmammoth proportions, the novelty of conception evinced in many parts, together with its extraordinary state of preservation, render it alikeunique, while the circumstances connected with its building impart to itan unusual interest. Wearied with the affairs of state, Diocletianretired to Salona, where he passed the remaining nine years of his lifein profound seclusion. Of the use to which he applied his wealth duringthat period, a record still exists in the golden gate and the Corinthiancolumns which decorate that regal abode; while we learn what were hispursuits from his own memorable reply to Maximian, when urged by him toreassume the purple. 'Utinam Salonis olera nostris manibus insitainvisere posses, de resumando imperio non judicares;' or, as it has beensomewhat freely translated by Gibbon--'If I could show you the cabbagesI have planted with my own hands at Salona, you would no longer urge meto relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. '[A]

Nor has nature been less bountiful than man to this most favoured spot. The description given by Adams conveys a very accurate impression of thecharacter of the surrounding country. 'The soil is dry and fertile, theair pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summermonths, the country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to whichthe coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views fromthe palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate are inviting. Towards the W. Lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as togive this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the N. Sidelies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona, and the countrybeyond it appearing in sight forms a proper contrast to that moreextensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the S. And the E. Towards the N. The view is terminated by high and irregularmountains situated at a proper distance, and in many places covered withvillages, woods, and vineyards. '[B] Like most other relics of antiquity, the time-honoured walls of Spalatro have been witnesses of those variedemotions to which the human heart is subject. Thither Glycerius theprelate retired, when driven by Julius Nepos from the imperial throne. There, too, in a spirit of true Christian charity, he heaped coals offire on the head of his enemy, by affording him a sanctuary whendethroned in his turn by Orestes, the father of Augustulus. Again, alittle while, and within the same walls, where he had deemed himselfsecure, Julius Nepos fell a victim to the assassin's knife, andsubsequently we find the houseless Salonites sheltering themselveswithin its subterraneous passages, when driven from their homes by thefury of the invading Avars. The memory of all these is passed away, butthe stones still remain an undying testimony of a happy king. 

Having passed some hours in the town and palace, I adjourned to one ofthe few small _cafés_ in the principal street. While sipping mychocolate, I was accosted by an elderly priest, who most civillyenquired whether he could help me in any way during my stay atSpalatro. He proved to be a person of much intelligence, and, notwithstanding that his knowledge of English extended only to a fewconversational words, he had read Sir Gardner Wilkinson's work onDalmatia, and, as his remarks showed, not without profiting thereby. At4. 30 the same afternoon we arrived at Lissa, the military port ofAustria in this part of the Adriatic. It is interesting to Englishtravellers, its waters having been the scene of a naval action in whichan English squadron, commanded by Captain Hoste, defeated a Frenchsquadron carrying nearly double as many guns. During the great war theisland belonged to England, and indeed a portion of it is called to thisday the Cittá Inglese. It at one time acquired a certain importance in amercantile point of view, sardines being the staple article of commerce. 

The same night we touched at Curzola, and at 4 A. M. OnSeptember 3 anchored at Gravosa, the port of debarcation for Ragusa. Taking leave of my friends on board, I landed at about 5 A. M. , and, having committed my luggage, a small bullock trunk, saddle-bags, and a saddle, to the shoulders of a sturdy facchino, and myself to avery rickety and diminutive cart, I proceeded on my way to Ragusa. Thedrive, about a mile and a half in distance, abounds with pretty views, while the town of Ragusa itself is as picturesque in its interiordetail as it is interesting from its early history. The grass-grownstreets, the half-ruined palaces, and the _far niente_ manners of thepeople, give little indication of the high position which the Republiconce achieved. Yet, despite all these emblems of decay, there are nosigns of abject poverty, but rather a spirit of frugal contentment iseverywhere apparent. 

Arriving at an hour when, in the more fastidious capitals of Europe, housemaids and milkmen hold undisputed sway, I found groups of thewealthier citizens collected under the trees which surround the café, making their morning meal, and discussing the local news the while. Later in the day ices and beer were in great demand, and in the eveningthe beauty and fashion of Ragusa congregated to hear the beautiful bandof the regiment 'Marmola. ' The hotel, if it deserve the name, is scarcefifty yards distant; it possesses a _cuisine_ which contrasts favourablywith the accommodation which the house affords. 

The _table d'hôte_ dinner is served in a kind of vaulted kitchen, thewalls of which are hung round with scenes illustrative of the Italiancampaign. The series, which comprises desperate cavalry charges, deathwounds of general officers, and infantry advancing amidst perfectbouquets of shot and shell, closes appropriately with the pacificmeeting of the two Emperors at Villafranca. 

Here, then, I proposed to take up my quarters, making it thestarting-point for expeditions to the Val d'Ombla, the beautiful Bocchedi Cattaro, and Cettigne, the capital of Montenegro; but it was destinedotherwise, and night found me on board a country fishing-boat, thebearer of despatches to Omer Pacha at Mostar, or wherever he mighthappen to be. 

[Footnote A: Gibbon, chap. Xiii. ]

[Footnote B: Adams' 'Ruins of Spalatro, ' p. 6. ]

CHAPTER II. 

 Military Road to Metcovich--Country Boat--Stagno--Port of Klek--Disputed Frontier--Narentine Pirates--Valley of the Narenta--Trading Vessels--Turkish Frontier--Facilities for Trade granted by Austria--Narenta--Fort Opus--Hungarian Corporal--Metcovich--Irish Adventurer--Gabella--Pogitel--Dalmatian Engineer--Telegraphic Communication--Arrival at Mostar--Omer Pacha--Object of Campaign. 

The change in my plans, and my precipitate departure from Ragusa, werethe results of information which I there received. From M. Persich, theOttoman Consul, whom I take this opportunity of thanking for hiscourtesy and kindness, I learned that the Turkish Generalissimo might beexpected to leave Mostar for the frontier at any moment, and that thedisturbed state of the country would render it perilous, if notimpossible, to follow him thither. This determined me to push on atonce, postponing my visit to Montenegro to a more fitting season. Tomake some necessary purchases, and to engage a servant, was the work ofa few hours, and, being supplied by the Captano of the Circolo with thenecessary visés and letters of recommendation to the subordinateofficials through whose districts I should have to pass, it onlyremained to decide upon the mode of travelling which I should adopt, and to secure the requisite conveyance. My first point was Metcovich, asmall town on the right bank of the Narenta, and close to the frontierlines of Dalmatia and Herzegovina. Three modes of performing the journeywere reported practicable, --viz. On horseback, by water, or by carriage. The first of these I at once discarded, as both slow and tedious; thechoice consequently lay between the remaining two methods: with regardto economy of time I decided upon the latter. But here a difficultyarose. The man who possessed a monopoly of carriages, for some reasonbest known to himself, demurred at my proceeding, declaring the road tobe impassable. He farther brought a Turkish courier to back hisstatement, who at any rate deserved credit, on thetell-a-good-one-and-stick-to-it principle, for his hard swearing. Isubsequently ascertained that it was untrue; and had I known a littlemore of the country, I should not have been so easily deterred, seeingthat the road in question is by far the best which exists in that partof Europe. It was constructed by the French during their occupation ofDalmatia in the time of Napoleon, and has been since kept in good orderby the Austrian government. Being thus thwarted in my plans, I made avirtue of necessity, engaged a country boat, and got under weigh on theevening of the day on which I had landed at Gravosa. The night wasclear and starry; and as my boat glided along before a light breezeunder the romantic cliffs of the Dalmatian coast, I ceased to regret thejolting which I should have experienced had I carried out my firstintention. Running along the shore for some ten hours in anorth-westerly direction, we reached Stagno, a town of small importance, situated at the neck of a tongue of land in the district of Slano, andwhich connects the promontory of Sabioncello with the mainland; tenminutes' walk across the isthmus brought us again to the sea. Theluggage deposited in a boat of somewhat smaller dimensions, and betteradapted for river navigation, we once more proceeded on our journey. 

A little to the north of Stagno is the entrance to the port of Klek, astriking instance of right constituted by might. The port, which, fromits entrance, belongs indisputably to Turkey, together with the land onthe southern side, is closed by Austria, in violation of every principleof national law and justice. 

Previous to 1852, many small vessels used to enter it for tradingpurposes, and it was not until Omer Pacha in that year attempted toestablish it as an open port that Austria interfered, and stationed awar-steamer at its mouth. 

In 1860 the restriction was so far removed that Turkish vessels havesince been allowed to enter with provisions for the troops. 

To the isolated condition of these provinces, coupled with the ignorancewhich prevails at Constantinople relative to the affairs of theinterior, must be attributed the indifference which the Porte has as yetmanifested regarding the preservation of its just rights. The importanceto be attached to the possession by Turkey of an open port upon thecoast cannot be overrated, since through it she would receive herimports direct from the producing countries, while her own productscould be exported without being subjected to the rules and caprices of aforeign state. Nor are the Turkish officials in these quarters at allblind to the injury that accrues to Turkey, from the line of policywhich Austria is now pursuing; but while they see and deplore themildness with which their government permits its rights to be thusviolated, they neglect to take any steps which might induce it to appealto the arbitration of Europe. Were this done, there could be littledoubt of the result; for, since the land on one side of the harbour, without question, belongs to Turkey, it would appear only just that sheshould have control over the half of the channel. But even were this tobe accorded (which is most improbable, since it would prove dangerous tothe trade of Trieste), the point at issue would still be far fromsettled. Any concessions will be unavailing so long as the present lineof demarcation between the two countries shall exist; for while Turkeydraws the line of limit from a point near the entrance of the harbour tothe village of Dobrogna, Austria maintains the boundary to run from thatvillage to a point farther within the port, by which arrangement sheincludes a small bluff or headland, which commands the entire harbour. She asserts her right to this frontier, upon the grounds of its havingbeen the line drawn by the French during their occupation of Dalmatia. The Turks deny the truth of this, and state that the lines occupied bythe French can still be traced from the remains of huts built for theprotection of their sentries. Moreover, since the Austrians have alsostated that the French, when in Dalmatia, did not respect the rights ofthe Sultan, but occupied Suttorina and Klek, the argument that theyassume the frontier left them by the French is hardly entitled to muchconsideration. That Austria is very unlikely to open Klek of her ownfree will, I have already said; nor can she be blamed for thedetermination, since she must be well aware that, in the event of herdoing so, English goods at a moderate price would find a far readiermarket than her own high-priced and indifferent manufactures. In a word, she would lose the monopoly of trade which she at present possesses inthese provinces. But, on the other hand, were Turkey animated by aspirit of reprisal, she might throw such obstacles in the path of hermore powerful neighbour as would almost compel her to abandon the systemof ultra-protection. 

The military road from Cattaro to Ragusa and Spalatro encroaches uponTurkish territory, and the telegraphic wire which connects Cattaro withTrieste passes over both Suttorina and Klek. The Austrian governmentwould find it very inconvenient were the Porte to dispute the right ofpassage at these points. Should Turkey ever be in a position to forcethe adoption of the frontier, as defined by herself, the value of Klekin a military point of view will be immeasurably increased; for, whilethe port itself would be protected by her guns, the approach to it isperfectly secure, although flanked on either side by Austrian territory. The waters of the harbour open out into the bay of Sabioncello fromseven to eight miles in width, so that a vessel in mid-channel might runthe gauntlet with impunity. 

Towards evening we entered the Narenta, the principal river of Dalmatiaand Herzegovina, by one of the numerous mouths which combine to form itsdelta. Its ancient name was the 'Naro, ' and it is also called byConstantine Porphyrogenitus 'Orontium. ' Later it acquired an unenviablenotoriety, as being the haunt of the 'Narentine Pirates, ' who issuedthence to make forays upon the coast, and plundered or levied tribute onthe trading vessels of the Adriatic. At one time they became so powerfulas to be able to carry on a regular system of warfare, and even gainvictories over the Venetian Republic, and it was not till 997A. D. That they were reduced to submission by the Doge PietroOrseolo II. , and compelled to desist from piracy. 

The valley of the Narenta is but thinly populated, a circumstance easilyaccounted for by the noxious vapours which exhale from the alluvial andreed-covered banks of the stream. 

The lowlands, moreover, which lie around the river's bed are subject tofrequent and rapid inundations. Excepting one party of villagers, whoappeared to be making merry around a large fire close to the bank, I sawno signs of human habitation. 

The croaking of many frogs, and the whirr of the wild fowl, as they rosefrom their marshy bed at our approach, were the only signs of life to beperceived, though higher up we met a few rowing boats, and one of thesmall coasting vessels used for the transport of merchandise. Theseboats are generally from twenty to thirty tons burden, and are employedfor the conveyance of ordinary goods from Trieste, whence the imports ofDalmatia, Bosnia, and the Herzegovina are for the most part derived. Their rates of freight are light, averaging from 10_d. _ to 1_s. _ percwt. , chargeable on the bulk. The more valuable or fragile articles arebrought to Macarsca, a port on the Dalmatian coast, near the mouth ofthe Narenta, in steamers belonging to the Austrian Lloyd's Company, whence they are despatched by boat to Metcovich. The expense attendanton this route prevents its being universally adopted. Insurance can beeffected as far as Metcovich at 1_s. _ 4_d. _ to 3_s. _ 4_d. _ per cwt. Onthe value declared, according to the season of the year. 

Metcovich may be regarded as the _Ultima Thulé_ of civilisation in thisdirection. Once across the frontier, and one may take leave of all one'spreconceived ideas regarding prosperity or comfort. Everything appearsat a standstill, whether it be river navigation or traffic on the land. The apathy of the Turkish government presents a striking contrast to thepolicy of Austria, who clearly sees the value to be attached to thetrade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and who, while throwing every obstaclein the way of competition, evinces unwonted energy to secure themonopoly which she now possesses. During the past few years she hasgranted many facilities for the growth of commercial relations betweenHerzegovina and her own provinces. Thus, for instance, the transit dueson the majority of imports and exports have been removed, a few articlesonly paying a nominal duty on passing into Turkey. Wool, skins, hides, wax, honey, fruits, and vegetables, are allowed into Dalmatia free ofduty. A grant of 1, 200, 000 florins has, moreover, been recently madefor the regulation of the channel of the Narenta, with the view ofrendering it navigable by small steamers, which will doubtless prove amost profitable outlay. It is to be hoped that the Turkish governmentwill take steps to continue the line to Mostar, which is quitepracticable, and could be effected at a small expense. 

The Narenta takes its rise at the foot of the small hill called Bolai, aspur of the Velesh range of mountains. Its route is very circuitous, theentire distance from the source to its mouth being about one hundred andthirty miles, while its average width is computed at about one hundredand forty yards. It is subject to rapid rises between the months ofSeptember and May, caused by rains in the mountains and the meltingsnow, and a rise of twelve feet in three or four hours is by no meansuncommon. As a source of communication it might be invaluable to theprovince, but in its present state it is perfectly useless, since thehardness of its waters renders it unfit for irrigation. It has manytributary streams, amongst the most important of which are the Boona, Bregava, Rama, Radopolie, Trebitza, and Cruppa. 

On its right bank, and some miles above the mouth, is a small town, which rejoices in the imposing name of Fort Opus, albeit it possessesneither walls, fortifications, nor other means of defence. As the nightwas already far advanced when we arrived, I resolved to stay there afew hours before continuing the row to Metcovich, which I shouldotherwise have reached before daylight, and have been compelled to lieoff the town during the damp hours of morning. Neither sentry nor healthofficer appeared to interdict our landing; and having found a miserableouthouse, which served as a cabaret, I was preparing to snatch a fewhours' sleep as best I might, when an Hungarian corporal, employed inthe finance department, came to the rescue, and undertook to find me abed. Of its quality I will abstain from speaking; but such as it was, itwas freely given, and it took much persuasion to induce the honestfellow to accept any remuneration. His post can hardly be a pleasantone, for malaria and fever cause such mortality, that the station isregarded much in the same light as is the gold coast of Africa by ourown government servants. As a set-off against these disadvantages, myfriend was in receipt of 2_d. _ per day additional pay. May he passunscathed through the ordeal!

By 2 A. M. I had again started, and reached Metcovich at 5A. M. On September 5. Here M. Grabrich, the principal merchantof the place, put me in the way of procuring horses to take me toMostar, about nine hours distant. My destination becoming known, I wasbeset with applications for my good offices with Omer Pacha. Some ofthese were petitions for contracts for supplying the army, though thegreater number were demands for arrears of payment due for the supply ofmeal, and the transport of horned cattle and other provisions to thefrontier. One of the complainants, a Greek, had a grievance of adifferent and much more hopeless nature. He had cashed a bill for asmall amount offered him by an Irish adventurer. This, as well asseveral others, proved to be forgeries, and the money was irretrievablylost. Although travelling under an assumed name, and with a falsepassport, I subsequently discovered the identity of the delinquent withan individual, whom doubtless many who were with Garibaldi during thecampaign of the Two Sicilies will call to mind. He was then onlyremarkable for his Calabrian costume and excessive amount of swagger. When at Niksich I learned that he had escaped through that town intoMontenegro, and he has not, I believe, since been traced. 

No punishment can be too severe for a scoundrel who thus brings Englishcredit into disrepute, and disgraces a name which, although little knownin these regions, is deservedly respected. 

From Metcovich the traveller may proceed to Mostar by either bank of theriver. I was recommended to take the road on the northern side, which Idid, and ten minutes' ride brought us to the frontier, where acustom-house official insisted upon unloading the baggage so recentlyarranged. In vain I remonstrated, and brandished my despatches withtheir enormous red seals in his face. His curiosity was not to be soeasily overcome. When he had at length satisfied himself, he permittedus to depart with a blessing, which I acknowledge was far fromreciprocated. The first place of any importance which we passed isGabella. It stands on an eminence overhanging a bend of the river, bywhose waters three of its sides are washed. In former days it wasdefended by two forts, whose guns swept the river in either direction, and commanded the approach upon the opposite bank. In A. D. 1694it was taken by Cornaro, and remained in the hands of the Venetiansuntil A. D. 1716, when they evacuated it, blowing up the greaterpart of its defences. 

Immediately above the town, the Narenta traverses the plain of Gabella, which is one of the largest and most productive in the country. 

The plains of Herzegovina are in reality nothing more than valleys orbasins, some of which are so hemmed in by hills, that the streamsflowing through them can only escape by percolation, or throughsubterranean channels. This last phenomenon frequently occurs, and nobetter example can be given of it than the Trebinitza, which losesitself in the ground two or three times. After the last of thesedisappearances nothing is known for certain of its course, although alarge river which springs from the rocks in the Val d'Ombla, and emptiesitself into the Adriatic near Ragusa, is conjectured to be the same. 

Gabella, as well as Popovo, Blato, and other plains, is inundated in thewinter, and remains in that state during three or four months. 

They are traversed by means of punts, and excellent wild-duck shootingmay be had by those who do not fear the exposure inseparable from thatsport. 

From this point the river entirely changes its aspect, losing thesluggish character which distinguishes it during its passage through theAustrian territory. Indeed, throughout its whole course, from its riseuntil it opens out into the plain of Gabella, its bed is rocky, and thecurrent rapid and even dangerous, from the number of boulders which riseabove the surface, or lie hid a little below the water line. It herereceives the waters of the Trebisat or Trebitza, and the Bregava, theformer flowing from the NW. , the latter from the district of Stolatz inthe SE. A few miles higher up is a narrow valley formed by two ranges ofhills, whose rocky declivities slope down to, or in some placesoverhang, the river's bed. From one spot where the hills project, thereis a pretty view of the town of Pogitel on the left bank. A largemosque, with a dome and minaret and a clock-tower, are the principalobjects which catch the eye; but, being pressed for time, I was unableto cross the river, and cannot therefore from my own observation enterinto any accurate details. The position is, however, exactly describedby Sir Gardner Wilkinson as follows: 'It stands in a semicircularrecess, like an immense shell, in the side of the hill, and at the twoprojecting extremities the walls run down from the summit to the river, the upper part being enclosed by a semicircular wall, terminated at eachend by a tower. '

Half way between Metcovich and Mostar is a little village, which boastsan humble species of Khan. 

Here I found the engineer in charge of the telegraph, a Dalmatian bybirth. His head-quarters are at Bosna Serai, but he was then making atour for the purposes of inspection and repair. 

The telegraphic communication throughout the Ottoman Empire is now moregeneral than its internal condition would warrant us in supposing. Indeed, in travelling through the country, one cannot fail to be struckby the strange reversal of the general order of things. Thus, forinstance, both telegraph and railways have preceded the construction ofordinary roads. 

And therein lies one of the principal causes of the hopelessness ofTurkish civilisation; that it has been prematurely forced upon her, andthat, in order to keep a position among the European nations, she isdriven to adopt the highest triumphs of European intelligence withoutpassing through the intermediate stages by which they have beenacquired. The rapidly remunerative nature of a telegraphic service isobviously sufficient reason for its being thus early established; butits duties devolve entirely, not upon Turks, but upon the foreignemployés of the government. It is, moreover, little used by theMussulman population, and consequently tends but little to theenlightenment of the masses. On the subject of roads, I shall haveoccasion to speak hereafter, and must therefore beg the indulgent readerto accompany me along the bridle-path which takes us to the capital ofHerzegovina. 

Descending from the hills our progress became more rapid; yet, despitethis, it was some hours after sunset before we entered the suburbs. Asusual in a Turkish town, dogs and gravestones were to be found inabundance, the latter with their turbanned heads looking spectral andgrim in the cold moonlight. Saving an occasional group of Mussulmanssitting silent and pompous in the dusty road, the city appearedperfectly deserted; and, as my now jaded ponies scrambled over theill-paved streets, I began to speculate on the probability of passingthe night _al fresco_. As may be conceived, then, it was withconsiderable satisfaction that I found myself, chibouque in hand, awaiting the arrival of the Pacha, who, notwithstanding the lateness ofthe hour, had expressed his intention of seeing me immediately. No onecan have a greater horror than myself of that mania which possessessome travellers for detailing conversations with Eastern dignitaries, which, for the most part, consist of ordinary civilities, imperfectlytranslated by an half-educated dragoman. 

In the present instance, however, I deem no apology necessary fordwelling upon this first or subsequent conversations; since anythingfrom the lips of such a man at so critical a moment must, to say theleast, be of interest, even though it should be without any actualpolitical importance. Having discussed the relative attitudes of theEuropean powers with regard to Turkey, and spoken most unreservedly onthe subject of French and Russian intrigues, he expressed great interestin the opinions formed by the public of the different countries on theHerzegovinian and Montenegrin question. The principal topic ofconversation, however, was the campaign then about to be opened againstthe Herzegovinian rebels, and the preparations which he had made forcarrying it out. 

While fully alive to the difficulties attending his task, resulting frompolitical complications, and the physical features of the country, heever spoke with confidence of the ultimate success of the Turkish armiesand the general pacification of the country. If any man be competent tobring about this desirable consummation it is himself; for he possesses, to an eminent degree, that caution which is indispensable to thesuccessful conduct of an offensive war in a mountainous country, andwhich is so much at variance with the haphazard arrangements usuallyfound among Turkish generals. 

In using the words _offensive war_, I mean to imply operations carriedon from a regular base, and in accordance with the generally acceptedrules of warfare, in contra-distinction to the guerilla fighting aspractised by the insurgent mountaineers. In its more literal sense, OmerPacha's mission can hardly be deemed offensive; his object is, not tooverrun territory, nor even to seek a combat with the enemy, but ratherto place the country in such a state of defence as will render it securefrom the incursions of those brigands who, having thrown off the Turkishrule, have sought a refuge in the fastnesses of Montenegro, whence, inconjunction with the lawless bands of that province, they make foraysacross the frontier, carrying fire and sword in their wake, respectingneither age nor sex, --rebels to their sovereign, and a disgrace toChristianity. 

CHAPTER III. 

 Herzegovina--Boundaries--Extent--Physical Features--Mountains--Mineral Products--Story of Hadji Ali Pacha--Forests--Austrian Timber Company--Saw-Mill--Rivers--Towns--Villages--Population--Greek Catholics--Church Dignitaries--Roman Catholics--Monks--Franciscan College--Moral Depravity--Fine Field for Missionary Labour. 

Herzegovina[C] or Bosnia Inferior, formerly the duchy of Santo Saba, isbounded on the N. By Bosnia, on the E. By Servia, on the W. By Dalmatia, and on the S. By Montenegro and the Adriatic. 

Its greatest length, from Duvno in the NW. , to Priepolie in the S. , isabout a hundred and twenty miles, and its greatest breadth from Konitza, on the Bosnian frontier, to the port of Klek, is about seventy-twomiles. [D] It contains an approximate area of 8, 400 square miles, with apopulation, of about thirty-five souls to the square mile. [D] A glanceat any map, imperfect in detail as those yet published have been, willconvey a tolerable idea of the nature of the country. 

The ranges of mountains which intersect the greater part of the provinceare a portion of the Dinaric Alps. Along the Dalmatian and Montenegrinfrontiers these are barren and intensely wild, and in many places, fromthe deep fissures and honeycomb formation of the rocks, impassable toaught save the chamois, the goat, or the indigenous mountaineer. 

Proceeding inland, the country assumes a more habitable aspect: plainsand pasture-lands capable of high cultivation are found at intervals, while even the mountains assume a more fertile appearance, and have abetter depth of soil, which is well adapted for the cultivation of theolive and the vine. Dense forests, too, of average growth cover themountain sides as we approach the Bosnian frontier, which, althoughinferior to those of Bosnia itself, would prove most remunerative to thegovernment were they properly worked. But, unfortunately, the principleof isolation which the Porte has adopted with regard to these remoteprovinces, together with the want of enterprise among its inhabitants, the result of four hundred years of indolence on the one hand andoppression on the other, renders it problematical whether their ampleresources will ever be developed. Should Turkey, however, arise from herlethargy, should genuine civilisation spread its branches over the land, we may then confidently anticipate a glorious future for hersouth-Slavonic provinces, doubting not that they will some day become'the noblest jewel in their monarch's diadem. '

To convey an accurate idea of a province so little known as theHerzegovina, it will be best to enumerate the various physical featuresby which it is distinguished. Thus the highest and most importantmountains are Dormitor in the district of Drobniak, on the Montenegrinfrontier, and Velesh, which forms a rugged background to the plain ofMostar, the highest point being 6, 000 feet above the level of the sea. Besides these, there are many others of nearly equal altitude, viz. Flam, Hergud, Prievolie, Vrau, Hako, Fartar, Belen, Stermoshnik, Bielevoda, Chabolie, Vrabcha, and Zavola. The perfect sea of rock whichthe southern part of the province presents to the eye is of greylimestone, varied however by a slatey stratum. Of the mineral productsof the mountains little accurate knowledge prevails; gold, silver, andlead are said to exist, but I could not hear of their having ever beenfound to any extent. A firman was granted some years ago to one HadjiAli Pacha, ceding to him for fifteen years the privilege of exploringBosnia and Herzegovina, and working any mines which he might therediscover. His application for this firman does not, however, in any wayprove the existence of these minerals throughout the country generally, since it has proved to have been a mere cloak for diverting suspicionfrom many previous dishonest actions of which he had been guilty. Hisstory is worthy of narration, as being no bad instance of the career ofa Turkish _parvenu_, whose only qualifications were a little educationand a large amount of effrontery. 

Hadji Ali Pacha commenced his career as a clerk in the pay of the greatMehemet Ali Pacha, Viceroy of Egypt, but, having deserted to the Turks, he was employed by them in the capacity of Uzbashee or Captain. Fearfulof falling into the hands of the Egyptians, he fled from his post, and, having made his way to Constantinople, contrived, by scheming andbribery, not only to efface the memory of the past, but to secure theappointment of Kaimakan or Lieut. -Colonel, with which grade he was sentto Travnik in command of a regiment. Tahir Pacha, the Governor ofBosnia, had about this time been informed of the existence of some goldmines near Travnik, and ordered Hadji Ali to obtain samples fortransmission to the Porte. This he did, taking care to retain all thevaluable specimens, and forwarding those of inferior quality, which, ontheir arrival at Constantinople, were declared worthless. No sooner wasthis decision arrived at, than Hadji Ali imported the necessarymachinery and an Austrian mechanic, to separate the gold from the ores, and in this way amassed immense wealth. Rumours having got abroad ofwhat was going on, and the suspicions of Tahir being aroused, theunfortunate Austrian was put secretly out of the way, and, as a blind, the unprincipled ruffian procured the firman to which allusion has beenmade. It need hardly be said that he never availed himself of theprivileges which it conferred upon him. Some time after thesetransactions, he applied for leave to visit Austria, on the plea ofill-health, but doubtless with the view of changing the gold. This wasrefused, and he was obliged to employ a Jew, who carried it to Vienna, and disposed of it there. In 1850, when Omer Pacha came to restore orderin Bosnia, which had then revolted, Hadji Ali was sent with twobattalions to the relief of another detachment; upon this occasion hecommunicated with the enemy, who cut off his rear-guard, and otherwiseroughly handled the Turkish troops. Upon this, Omer Pacha put him inchains, and would have shot him, as he richly deserved, had he not knownthat his enemies at Constantinople would not fail to distort the truefeatures of the case. He therefore sent him to Constantinople, where hewas shortly afterwards released, and employed his gold to such goodpurpose, that he was actually sent down as Civil Governor to Travnik, which he had so recently left a prisoner convicted of robbery andtreason. He was, however, soon dismissed for misconduct, and enteredonce more into private speculations. In 1857 he purchased the tithes ofBosnia and Herzegovina, and employed such ruffians to collect them as tomake perfect martyrs of the people, some of whom were even killed by hisagents. Exasperated beyond endurance, the people of Possavina rose enmasse, and although the movement was put down without difficulty, itdoubtless paved the way for the discord and rebellion which has beenattended with such calamitous results. This is precisely one of thosecases which has brought such odium on the Turkish government, and whichmay so easily be avoided for the future, always providing that the Portebe sincere in its oft-repeated protestations of a desire for genuinereform. Ali Pacha was at Mostar in the beginning of 1858, when themovement began, but was afraid to venture into the revolted districts tocollect his tithes. The Governor, therefore, made him Commandant of theHerzegovinian irregulars, in which post he vindicated the characterwhich he had obtained for cruelty and despotism. Subsequently he wasappointed Kaimakan of Trebigné, but the European Consuls interfered, andhe has now decamped, owing a large sum to government, the remnant of hiscontract for the tithes. 

The sides of some of the mountains are covered, as I have before said, with dense forests of great value. There the oak, ash, elm, beech, walnut, red and white pine, and the red and yellow maple, grow in richprofusion, awaiting only the hand of man to shape them into 'the tallmast' and the 'stately ship. ' But man, in these benighted lands, isblind to the sources of wealth with which his country teems, and tonature it is left in the lapse of years to 'consume the offspring shehas herself produced. ' The difficulty of transporting the timber to amarket has been always alleged by the natives as their reason forneglecting to turn the forests to account; but this is a paltry excuse, for with abundance of rivers to float it to the coast, and a neighbourso anxious to monopolise the trade of the country as Austria has shownherself, little doubt can be entertained of the possibility of itsadvantageous disposal. As far back as 1849 an Austrian Company, foreseeing the benefits which would accrue from the employment ofcapital in these parts, obtained a concession of the pine forests fortwenty years. Saw-mills were built near Mostar, and roads and shootswere constructed. About 5, 000 logs had been cut and exported, when theworks were stopped by Omer Pacha on his arrival to suppress rebellion inthe country in 1850. This arbitrary measure on his part has been muchreprehended, and does without doubt require explanation. 

It should, however, be remembered that the contract, which was likely toprove most remunerative to the Company, and of but little advantage tothe Turkish government, had been granted by Ali Pacha of Stolatz, thelast Civil Governor, to whom a tithe of the products was being paid. Hehad in the meanwhile thrown off his allegiance, and consequently theonly blame which can attach to Omer Pacha is a want of judgement, causedby over-zeal for the interests of his government. The case wasafterwards litigated, and the Porte was mulcted 200, 000 florins as anindemnity for their breach of the contract. This was liquidated from AliPacha's property, and the firman has been renewed for fourteen yearssince 1859. The Austrian government has, however, forbidden the Companyto avail themselves of it, as its members are engaged in legalproceedings. The only saw-mill which I met with in the country was oneat Boona, worked by an Hungarian, who is apparently doing a lucrativebusiness. 

The rivers in the country are of no great size or importance, but mightin most cases be turned to account for the transport of timber or forirrigation. The waters of some of the large rivers, it is true, areinjurious to vegetation from their hardness, but this does not apply toall. After the Narenta, the following are the most important:--theTrebenitza, Pria, Taro and Moratcha, Yanitza, Boona, Boonitza, Bregava, Kruppa, Trebisat or Trebitza, Drechnitza, Grabovitza, Biela, Kaladjin-Polok, and the Drina. It might be expected from its vicinity toBulgaria, where such fine lakes are found, that the same would be thecase in Herzegovina; but it is not so: Blato, which is marked as a lakein all maps, is only such in winter, as with early spring the watersdisappear. 

The only towns in the province worthy of mention, besides Mostar, areFochia and Taschlijeh. They each contain about 10, 000 inhabitants. Theother towns are nothing more than large villages, with a bazaar. Theyare the seats of the district governments, such as Stolatz, Trebigné, Konitza, Niksich, Duvno, Chainitza, and others. The houses in these arenot conspicuous for cleanliness, while those in the smaller villages arestill less desirable as residences. They generally consist of somescores of huts, built of rough stones, without windows or chimneys, androofed with boards, which are again covered with straw. They seldomcontain more than one room, which the family occupies, in conjunctionwith the poultry and domestic animals. The furniture of these luxuriousabodes consists of a hand-loom, two or three iron pots, a few earthenvessels, and some wooden spoons. The bedding is a coarse woollenblanket, which serves as a cloak in rainy or wet weather, and as amattress and coverlet for the whole family, without distinction of sex. 

The population of the Herzegovina amounts to about 182, 000, divided asfollows:--

Catholics 52, 000Greek Church 70, 000Mussulmans 60, 000

Originally these were all of the same stock; and their presentdivisions, while constituting an element of safety for Turkey, are mostprejudicial to the well-being of the country. The Greek faithpredominates in the southern and eastern parts of the province. Itsadherents are distinguished for their activity and cunning, --qualitieswhich have rendered them far wealthier than their brethren of theCatholic communion. The possession of comparative wealth, and theconsciousness of the moral support granted them by Russia, has made thempresumptuous and over-bearing, hating alike all sects and creeds whichdiffer from their own. Their ignorance is only equalled by thefanaticism which often results therefrom; and so bitter is theirdetestation of the Roman Catholics, that more than one instance has beenknown of its leading to foul acts of murder. Unoffending peasants havebeen taken in the revolted districts, and ordered to kneel and make thesign of the cross, to prove the truth of their assertions that they werenot Mussulmans. The wretched creatures confidently did so in accordancewith the Roman Catholic form, and their lives were unceremoniouslyforfeited to the bigotry and ferocity of their unrelenting judges. Norare either tolerance or humanity in any way advocated by the priests, who are generally as illiterate and narrow-minded as their flocks, andwhose influence, which is very great, is generally employed for evil. The priesthood are divided into Archimandrite, Igumens (chiefs ofmonasteries), Monks, and Priests, all of whom are natives of theprovince, where their whole lives have been passed. Of late years, however, many have been sent to receive their education in Russia. Someof these have now returned, but have not given signs of any desire toameliorate the spiritual condition of the people. The Church has alwaysbeen governed by a Vladika or Metropolitan, named from Constantinople. Like most other appointments from that capital, this was generally paidfor, and its possessor consequently did not hesitate to employ everymeans in his power to reimburse himself. This, and the fact that he wasnever a native of the country, rendered him most unpopular; so thatwhile the priests (little as they may deserve it) are regarded withreverence by the people, the Vladika was respected by neither the onenor the other. At present the office is vacant, none having beenappointed since the demise of the last who occupied the episcopal chair. That event occurred in the commencement of 1861, and his attempts atextortion were so frequent and undisguised, that his death must havebeen felt as a great relief by the people. Petitions were sent at thattime to Constantinople, praying for the appointment of a SlavishMetropolitan; but, independently of the difficulty of finding anyone ofsufficient education among the Bosnian clergy, political considerationshave induced the Porte to prevent the Patriarch complying with thedemand; for, however bad in other respects they may have been, theMetropolitans have always remembered that their allegiance was due tothe Patriarch of Constantinople, and not to the schismatic branch of theGreek Church, over which the Czar exercises both temporal and spiritualsway. Were a Slavish Metropolitan appointed, Russian influence would bedangerously augmented, and the task of transferring the allegiance ofthe people from their proper ecclesiastical head to the Russian Emperor, as has been attempted in Bulgaria, would here become easy ofaccomplishment. 

In the N. And W. The Romish faith finds the greatest number ofsupporters, who look to Austria as their guiding star in all mattersconnected with religion. In their ranks are comprised theagriculturalists and artisans of the province, few being engaged incommerce. As regards education or enlightenment they are no fartheradvanced than their Greek compatriots: few can read or write their ownlanguage, and the knowledge of any other tongue is most exceptional. Learning, in its broader sense, is indeed confined exclusively to theconvents, and, until very recently, no attempt of any kind was made bythe priests to promote a desire for education or advancement among thepeople, their whole thoughts being bent on self-aggrandisement, and theacquisition of personal wealth. Careful enquiry has established the factthat no less than 60, 000_l. _ is annually paid in fees, penances, andgifts to the Church by the Roman Catholic section of the population; andwe may fairly infer that the Greek priests extort an equally large sum. Of late schools have been established in different parts of theprovince, but the subjects of education are too confined to work anysalutary change in the rising generation. Nor is it probably intendedthat such should be the case. 

The Roman Catholics cordially return the hatred of the Greeks, marriageswith whom are forbidden by the Catholic clergy. They are also inimicalto the Mussulman population, by whom they are regarded as serfs. Butthis hostility is nurtured in secret, rarely displaying itself in overtacts of aggression. Four hundred years of oppression have completelybroken their spirit, and they only ask to be allowed to enjoy in peace afair portion of the fruits of their labour. 

The Church is governed by two bishops. One, resident at Mostar, bearsthe title of Bishop of Azotto, and Vicar-Apostolic of the Herzegovina. The other, called the Bishop of Trebigné, lives at Ragusa, which is alsoincluded in his see. He has, however, a Vicar resident in the districtof Stolatz. As in Bosnia, the monks are all of the Franciscan order. Considerable attention is paid to their education, and they are in everyway immeasurably superior to the parochial clergy. In connection withthat brotherhood a college has been for some years established, abouttwelve miles distant from Mostar. The subjects of education there areLatin, Italian, Slavish, Church History, and Theology. From this collegethe students proceed to Rome, where they are admitted into theFranciscan order. 

In the above remarks, I have endeavoured to show that the Christianitywhich exists in these provinces is merely nominal, since it is devoid ofall those gentle and humanising principles which should distinguish itfrom Islamism, whose tenets have been ever propagated by conquest andthe sword. The vices which more especially accompany and mar the beautyof true Christian civilisation here hold unrestrained dominion, and bothGreeks and Catholics present a painful combination of western cunningand intrigue and oriental apathy, while they are devoid of that spiritof devotion and dignified resignation to the will of Providence whichpreeminently characterise the religion of Mahomet. Living on theconfines of the two hemispheres, they have inherited the sins of each, without the virtues of either the one or the other. Nearly all adultsare addicted to drunkenness, while the use of foul and indelicatelanguage is almost universal, --men, women, and children employing it incommon conversation. So long as such a state of things shall prevail, itis clearly impossible that any material improvement can be broughtabout; and until the people show some inclination to improve their owncondition, the sympathy or consideration of others is uncalled-for andmisplaced. The perpetual Russian whine about eight millions ofChristians being held in galling subjection by four millions of Turks isa miserable deception, which, although it may serve as a pretext fortheir own repeated acts of interference, cannot mislead those who haveseen anything of these countries, or who have been brought into contactwith their Christian inhabitants. The most effective course, probably, which either the bitterest enemy or the warmest friend of the Ottomangovernment could pursue, would be to disseminate the seeds of trueChristianity throughout the length and breadth of the land. And I saythis advisedly; for on the future conduct of the Porte would dependwhether such a course might lead to the establishment of Turkishsupremacy, or to its irretrievable overthrow. That an enlightenednation, 'at unity in itself, ' could cast off the yoke of an oppressiveand tottering despotism can easily be imagined, while, on the otherhand, a throne based upon principles of justice and progression wouldacquire fresh stability with each step made by its subjects in the pathof civilisation. It is, indeed, strange that so fine a field for Britishmissionary labour has been so long uncared-for and untried. Nowhere isthere more ample scope for exertion of this nature than in the Europeanprovinces of Turkey; for while the Christian population could not butcontrast the simple purity of the missionary life with the vicioushabits and grasping avarice of their own clergy, the Mussulmans wouldsee Christianity in a very different light from that in which they havebeen accustomed to regard it. Nor would any obstacles be thrown in theway by the Turkish government; nay, instances have even occurred ofProtestant missionaries receiving encouragement and support: for, whatever may be said to the contrary, no nation is more tolerant of theexercise of other religions than these same much-abused Moslems. Whatever is to be done, however, should be done at once, for never wasit more urgently needed. The American struggle seems to have paralysedthe missionary labours of that nation, which had heretofore displayedmuch energy in proclaiming the glad tidings of great joy in thesebenighted lands. For England, then, it would appear, is reserved thenoble task of rescuing these unfortunates from a state of moraldarkness, as profound as that which envelopes the savage tribes ofcentral Africa, or the remotest islands of the Pacific. That we haveremained so long indifferent to the urgent appeals of the talented andearnest, though somewhat prejudiced, advocate of Slavonic institutions, Count Valerian Krasinski, is a matter of surprise and deep regret; forsurely no country can be more replete with interest to ProtestantEngland than that which may be regarded as the cradle of Protestantism, and whose fastnesses afforded a refuge during four centuries ofpersecution to the 'early reformers of the Church, the men who suppliedthat link in the chain which connected the simplicity of primitivedoctrines with the present time. '

The affinity which exists between the Church of England in the earlydays of the Reformation and the Pragmatic section which glory in Hussand Jerome, is too close to be easily overlooked. Nor need Bosnia (takencollectively) succumb in interest to any Slavonic province, whether itbe regarded as the stronghold of freedom of religious opinion, or as thescene of one of the greatest and most important triumphs of Islamism. 

[Footnote C: Or the territory governed by a Herzog or Duke. ]

[Footnote D: This includes Austrian subjects, who are not included inthe statistics. ]

CHAPTER IV. 

 Introduction of Christianity--Origin of Slavonic Element--First Appearance of the Patarenes in Bosnia--Their Origin--Tenets--Elect a Primate--Disappearance--Dookhoboitzi, or Combatants in Spirit--Turkish Conquest--Bosnian Apostasy--Religious Fanaticism--Euchlemeh--Commission under Kiamil Pacha--Servian Emissaries--National Customs--Adopted Brotherhood--Mahommedan Women--Elopements--Early Marriages. 

Authorities differ as to the time when Christianity was first introducedinto Bosnia. Some say that it was preached by the apostle St. James, while others affirm that it was unknown until the year 853A. D. , when St. Cyril and Methodius translated the Scripturesinto the Slavonic tongue; others again say that it dates back as far asthe seventh century, when the Emperor Heraclius called the Slavonicnations of the Chorvats or Croats, and the Serbs or Servians, from theirsettlement on the N. Of the Carpathian Mountains, to the fertile regionsS. Of the Danube. The warlike summons was gladly obeyed by those valiantmen, who had unflinchingly maintained their independence, whilst theirSlavish brethren, inhabiting the country between the Volga and the Don, had submitted to the iron yoke of the all-conquering Avars. These lastwere in their time expelled by the Croats and Serbs, and thus wasSlavism established from the Danube to the Mediterranean. But theseimportant results were not achieved without great sacrifice; and, wearied of war and bloodshed, the successful Slavonians devotedthemselves to agriculture and industry, neglecting those pursuits whichhad procured for them a permanent footing in the Greek empire. Takingadvantage of this defenceless state, resulting from their pacificdisposition, Constans II. Made war upon the country of Slavonia, inorder to open a communication between the capital on the one side, andPhilippi and Thessalonica on the other. Justinian II. (685-95 and708-10) also made a successful expedition against the Slavonians, andtransplanted a great number of prisoners, whom he took into Asia Minor. The Greek empire having become reinvigorated for some time under theSlavonian dynasty, Constantine Copronymus (741-75) advanced in hisconquest of Slavonia as far as Berea, to the S. Of Thessalonica, whichis evident from an inspection of the frontiers of the empire, made byorder of the Empress Irene in 783. The Emperor Michael III. (842-67)sent an army against the Slavonians of the Peloponnesus, which conqueredthem all with the exception of the Melugi and Eseritœ, who inhabitedLacedæmonia and Elis, and they were all finally subjugated by theEmperor Basilicus I. , or the Macedonian (867-86), after which theChristian religion and Greek civilisation completely Hellenised them, astheir brethren on the Baltic were Germanised. [E] That the Latin faithsubsequently obtained a permanent footing in these provinces, is due tothe influence of the Kings of Hungary, who took the Bosnian Bans undertheir special protection; and thus it happened that the Bosnian noblesalmost universally adopted the religion of their benefactors, --not somuch from conviction, it is surmised, as from an appreciation of themany feudal privileges which it conferred, since they afterwardsrenounced Christianity entirely, rather than relinquish the rights whichthey had begun to regard as hereditary. The remote position of thesecountries, however, and the antagonism of the Eastern and WesternChurches, combined to retard the development of the Papal doctrines, while a still more important counterpoise presented itself, in theappearance of the sect of Patarenes, towards the close of the twelfthcentury. The sect was founded by an Armenian doctor, named Basil, whowas burnt for his opinions by the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, and whosefollowers, being banished, retired into Bulgaria, where they made manyconverts, and took the name of Bogomili--'chosen of God, ' or 'implorersof God's mercy. ' They thence spread their tenets into France by meansof pilgrims and traders, who were on their return to that country, andby degrees laid the seeds of doctrines subsequently taken up by PeterBruysius, and afterwards by Henry and by Peter Valdo, the founder of theWaldenses, and by others in other places. Availing themselves of thevarious Caliphs' tolerance of all Christian sects, they carried theiropinions with their commerce into Africa, Spain, and finally intoLanguedoc, a neighbouring province, to Moorish Iberia, where Raymond, Count of Toulouse, gave them shelter and protection. [F]

The same opinions were held by the Paulicians of Spain, who, havingreceived much encouragement from the Kings of Arragon and Castile, alsodisseminated their doctrines throughout France, in the southernprovinces of which they met with great success. There they received thename of Albigenses, from the town of Albiga or Alby. They afterwardsspread into Italy, where they received the name of 'Patarenes, ' as somesuppose from the 'sufferings' which they endured, though other fancifulreasons are assigned for the bestowal of the name. The tenets of theseearly reformers 'have been transmitted through various sects under thedifferent denominations of Vallenses, Paulicians, Patarenes, Cathari(Puritans), Bogomili, Albigenses, Waldenses, Lollards, Bohemian Brethrenor Hussites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other Protestants to the presentday. ' No very lucid account of their articles of faith has been handeddown to our times, and some suppose that they entertained the Manichæandoctrines of the existence of the two principles, and of the creation ofthe spiritual world by the good, and of matter by the evil One. Krasinski appears to favour this supposition; but it is far moreprobable that, with the name indiscriminately bestowed as a term ofopprobrium upon all who differed from the canons of the Romish Church, they have received the credit of supporting the doctrines of theManichæans. This much, however, is certain, --that they denied thesovereignty of the Pope, the power of the priests, the efficacy ofprayers for the dead, and the existence of purgatory;[G] while theyrejected all images, relics, and the worship of the saints. Whether theadvent of the sect into Bosnia was from the Bulgarian or Italian side isunknown; but, be this as it may, it is beyond a doubt that they weremost favourably received (in 1197) by Kulin, who was at that time Ban ofthe province. His wisdom was so great, and his reign so prosperous, thatlong after his death it was a proverbial saying in Bosnia, upon theoccurrence of a fruitful year, 'the times of Kulin are come back. ' Bothhe himself, his wife, and Daniel, Bishop of Bosnia, embraced the newdoctrines, which consequently gained ground rapidly in the country. 

In obedience to a summons from Pope Innocent III. , Kulin repaired toRome to give an account of his conduct and faith. Having succeeded indiverting suspicions about his orthodoxy, he returned to Bosnia, wherehe gave out that the Pope was well satisfied with his profession offaith, --a slight equivocation, which will hardly bear an enquiry, --andthus induced many more to join the Patarenes. Hearing of this, the Poperequested the King of Hungary to compel Kulin to eject them from thecountry, at the same time ordering Bernard, Archbishop of Spalatro, publicly to excommunicate Daniel, the refractory Bishop. 

 'Never was heard such a terrible curse. But what gave rise To no little surprise Was, that nobody seemed one penny the worse;'

though possibly the believer in the validity of Papal bulls, bans, andso forth, may plead in excuse that the curse was never actuallypronounced. The King also contented himself with a friendly caution tothe Ban, who thenceforward demeaned himself with more circumspection. Onthe death of Kulin, Andrew, King of Hungary, gave the Banate of Bosniato Zibislau, under whom the doctrines of the Patarenes continued toflourish. The fears of Pope Honorius II. Being aroused, he sentAcconcio, his Legate, into Bosnia to suppress them. So far fromeffecting this, he saw their numbers daily and hourly increase, until in1222 they elected a Primate of their own, who resided on the confines ofBulgaria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed by his Vicars the filialcongregation of Italy and France. [H] They destroyed the cathedral ofCrescevo, and Bosnia became entirely subject to their influence. Fromthat time, until the latter part of the fourteenth century, theycontrived to keep a footing in the country, although subjected to muchpersecution by successive Popes and the Kings of Hungary, and oftentimesreduced to the greatest straits. Occasional glimpses of sunshine buoyedup their hopes, and the following anecdote, quoted by Sir GardnerWilkinson, is illustrative of the sanguine view which they wereaccustomed to take of the ways of Providence. 'Many of the Patarenes hadtaken refuge, during the various persecutions, in the mountains ofBosnia; and on the eve of St. Catherine (November 24) in 1367, a firewas seen raging over the whole of the country they occupied, destroyingeverything there, and leaving the mountains entirely denuded of wood. The Roman Catholics considered this event to be a manifest judgement ofheaven against the wicked heretics; but the Patarenes looked on it as aproof of divine favour, the land being thereby cleared for them andadapted for cultivation. ' In 1392 the sect flourished under Tuartko(then King of Bosnia), and, further, made great progress during thefirst half of the following century. Their cause was openly espoused byCosaccia, Duke of Santo Saba, or Herzegovina, and by John PaulovichVoivode of Montenegro. So far all went well; but Stephen, King ofBosnia, having in 1459 ordered all Patarenes to leave his kingdom orabjure their doctrines, their cause received a severe shock, and 40, 000were obliged to take refuge in the Herzegovina, where they were welcomedby Stephen Cosaccia. From that time no farther direct trace remains ofthis important and widely-spreading sect; though Krasinski speaks of theexistence of a sect in Russia called 'Dookhoboitzi, ' or combatants inspirit, whose doctrines have great affinity to those professed by thePatarenes, and whom he believes to have been transplanted from Bosnia toRussia, their present country. 

But this triumph of Papal oppression was not destined to be of longduration. Already was the tide of Mussulman conquest threatening tooverrun Germany; and Bosnia, after suffering severely from the warsbetween Hungary and the Turks, was conquered, and annexed by the latterin 1465. The religious constancy of the Bosnian nobles was now sorelytried, for they found themselves compelled to choose between theirreligion and poverty, or recantation and wealth. Their decision was soonmade, and the greater portion renounced Christianity and embracedIslamism, rather than relinquish those feudal privileges, for theattainment of which they had originally deserted their national creed. Their example was ere long followed by many of the inhabitants of thetowns, and thus an impassable gulf was placed between them and the greatbody of the people, who remained faithful to Christianity, and regardedthe renegades with mistrust and abhorrence. These for the moment werebenefited greatly by their apostasy, receiving permission to retain notonly their own estates, but also to hold in fief those belonging to suchas had refused to deny Christ. With the bitterness characteristic ofrenegades, they now became the most inveterate enemies of those whosefaith they had abjured, oppressing them by every means within theirpower. The savage tyranny which they exercised would doubtless havedriven very many to emigration, had a place of refuge presented itself;but in the existing condition of the surrounding countries such a coursewould have in no way profited them, but would rather have aggravatedtheir misery. A few, indeed, succeeded in escaping into Hungary, butthe mass submitted to their fate, and were reduced to poverty andinsignificance. 

The rancorous ill-treatment which they experienced at the hands of theirfanatical oppressors, was without doubt increased by the fact that thesefound themselves a small and isolated band, all-powerful upon theimmediate spot they occupied, but surrounded by states which wereimplacable enemies to their religion; while the remote position of theseprovinces, and the difficulty of communication, have combined to renderthe people, even now, less tolerant than the more legitimate devotees ofMahometanism. That idea of superiority over other peoples and religions, which the Mussulman faith inculcates, was eagerly embraced by them atthe time of their first perversion, and conspired to make them zealotsin their newly-adopted creed. The feeling was inherited, and evenaugmented, with each succeeding generation, until it has become theprominent feature of the race. To such an extent has this been indulged, that the Bosniac Mussulmans of the present day not only despise allother religions, but look upon the Mahommedans of other parts of theempire as very little superior to the Christians. The apathy andindifference to progress which has inevitably ensued upon the adoptionof Islamism, has made its effects strikingly apparent in theseprovinces; and although entirely deprived of all those Seignorialrights which their ancestors possessed, the Mussulman population appearperfectly satisfied with the lazy independence procured for them by theproduce and rents of the land, of which they are the sole proprietors. The Christians, on the other hand, are invariably the tenants, as it isbeneath the dignity of a Mussulman to turn his hand to any kind ofmanual labour, i. E. So long as he can find a Christian to do it. 

The Euchlemeh, or arrangement for the tenure of land, has long existedin this part of the empire, and has worked well whenever it has not beenabused. The original terms of the contract provided that the proprietorshould give the land and the seed for sowing it, receiving in returnone-third of the produce in kind. The commission of which Kiamil Pachawas President in 1853, endeavoured, whilst regulating the taxation ofBosnia and Herzegovina, to ameliorate the condition of the tenant asregards the rental of land. They decreed that he should be supplied withanimals, implements, seeds, and also a house in which to live, whileyielding to the proprietor in return from 25 to 50 per cent. Of theproducts, according to the more or less prolific nature of land in thedifferent parts of the provinces. These terms were cheerfully acceptedby the agriculturalists, by whom they were considered just. The internalstate of the Ottoman empire, unfortunately, renders it impossible thatthese conditions should in all cases be adhered to, and without doubtthe tenants are often compelled to pay from 10 to 20 per cent. More thanthe legal rent. These instances, however, are less frequent than theywere a few years ago, and very much less frequent than the depreciatorsof Turkey would have us to believe. The most scrupulous observance ofthe terms of the Euchlemeh will be enforced by the Ottoman government ifit be alive to its own interests, and the more so that the infraction ofit has been, and will always be, turned to account by those who wouldfain see rebellion and discord prevailing in the Turkish provinces, rather than unity and peace. 

In 1860 no fewer than nine Servian emissaries were caught in theHerzegovina, who were endeavouring to fan the discontent and ill-feelingalready existing amongst the agricultural classes. That province hasindeed been for a long time employed by the advocates of Panslavism, orby the enemies of Turkey in general, as a focus of agitation, whereplans are hatched and schemes devised, the object of which is todisorganise and impede the consolidation of the empire. The conduct ofServia, as well as of greater and more important nations, has been mostreprehensible, and with it the forbearance of Turkey, notwithstandingthe corruptness of her government and the fanaticism of the Mussulmanpopulation, has contrasted most favourably. Little wonder, then, thatill-blood should have existed between these rival factions, and that theparty possessing power should have been prompted to use it for theoppression of those whom they have had too much reason to regard astheir implacable foes. Yet, in spite of these opposing elements, manypoints of striking resemblance still remain inspired by, and indicativeof, their former consanguinity of origin and identity of creed. The mostimportant of these, perhaps, is their retention of the Slavonic tongue, which is employed to the exclusion of Turkish, almost as universally bythe Mussulmans as by the Christians. Some of their customs, too, provethat a little spark of nationality yet exists, which their adoption ofIslamism has failed to eradicate. Thus, for example, the principle ofadopted brotherhood is eminently Slavonic in its origin. The tie iscontracted in the following manner:--Two persons prick their fingers, the blood from each wound being sucked by the other. This engagement isconsidered very binding, and, curiously enough, it is sometimes enteredinto by Christians and Mussulmans mutually. Again, a man cuts the hairof a child, and thus constitutes himself the 'Coom, ' or, to a certaindegree, assumes the position of a godfather. It not unfrequently happensthat a Mussulman adopts a Christian child, and vice versâ. 

In their domestic arrangements they vie in discomfort and want ofcleanliness, notwithstanding the post-prandial ablutions common to allEasterns. 

The Mussulman females, up to the time of their marriage, show themselvesunreservedly, and generally appear in public unveiled; while in onerespect, at any rate, they have the advantage of many more civilisedChristians than those of Turkey, --that they are permitted, in the matterof a husband, to choose for themselves, and are wooed in all due form. Parents there, as elsewhere, are apt to consider themselves the bestjudges of the position and income requisite to insure the happiness oftheir daughters, and where such decision is at variance with the younglady's views, elopement is resorted to. Of the amount of resistanceencountered by the bridegrooms on these occasions, I regret that I amnot in a position to hazard an opinion. Polygamy is almost unknown, asecond wife being seldom taken during the lifetime of the first. Sinceit is to the expense attendant upon this luxury that such abstinence isprobably to be attributed, it really reflects great credit upon theBosnian Benedicts that the meal-sack has been so seldom brought intoplay, --that ancient and most expeditious Court of Probate and Divorce inmatrimonial cases. After marriage, the women conceal themselves morestrictly than in most other parts of Turkey. Perhaps in this thehusbands act upon the homœopathic principle, that prevention is betterthan cure; for divorces are unheard of, and are considered mostdisgraceful. Marriages are contracted at a much earlier age by theChristian than by the Mahommedan women, and it is no uncommon thing tofind wives of from twelve to fourteen years of age. This abominablecustom is encouraged by the Roman Catholic clergy, whose revenues arethereby increased. 

[Footnote E: Krasinski. ]

[Footnote F: See Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Dalmatia, ' Napier's 'FlorentineHistory, ' and Sismondi's 'Literature du Midi de l'Europe. ']

[Footnote G: Sismondi. ]

[Footnote H: Gibbon. ]

CHAPTER V. 

 Agricultural Products--Cereals--Misapplication of Soil--Tobacco--Current Prices--Vine Disease--Natural Capabilities of Land--Price of Labour--Dalmatian _Scutors_--Other Products--Manufactures--Commerce--Relations with Bosnia--Able Administration of Omer Pacha--Austria takes Alarm--Trade Statistics--Imports--Exports--Frontier Duties--Mal-administration--Intended Reforms. 

The agricultural products of the Herzegovina are wheat, barley, rice, linseed, millet, tobacco, and grapes. Of the cereals, Indian corn ismost cultivated, and forms the staple article of consumption, as is alsothe case in Servia and the Danubian principalities. The little wheatthat is grown is found in the northern and eastern parts of theprovince, where the soil is better adapted for it; but nowhere is iteither abundant or of good quality. The best which is sold in the townsis imported from Bosnia. Barley is more extensively grown, and horsesare fed upon it here and throughout Turkey generally. Linseed is onlygrown in small quantities in the northern parts, while the district ofGliubinski is almost entirely devoted to the culture of rice. As thequantities produced barely suffice for home consumption, no exportationof cereals can be expected to take place. This circumstance, togetherwith its rugged appearance, naturally procures for the province thecharacter of being sterile and unproductive, and such it doubtless iswhen compared with Bulgaria, Roumelia, or the fruitful plains ofWallachia; but it has certain resources peculiar to itself, which, ifproperly developed, would materially change the aspect of the country, and obtain for it a more desirable reputation. It is eminently adaptedfor the cultivation of those articles of Eastern necessity and Westernluxury, tobacco and the vine. Numerous patches of land, now eitherfallow or sown with grain, for which they are neither suited by theirsize or the nature of their soil, might be turned to good account forthe growth of tobacco; and such would doubtless be the case were therean outlet for its exportation, which at present, unfortunately, does notexist. Only a sufficiency, therefore, is grown to meet the localdemands, and to supply the contiguous Turkish provinces. Three qualitiesare produced, the prices of which have been for some time fluctuating. Previous to the Christian outbreak the best of these, grown in thedistrict of Trebigné, sold for about 11_d. _ per pound, while thecheapest was to be procured at 3_d. _ per pound. 

In alluding to the capabilities of the province for the production ofthe vine, I might also have mentioned the olive and the mulberry, bothof which would thrive. Of these the vine alone, however, has as yetoccupied the attention of the agriculturalists; and though it is largelycultivated in the southern and western parts, not one-tenth part of theland adapted to it is thus employed. 

The same obstacle which impedes the more extensive cultivation oftobacco, is also in a measure applicable to the manufacture of wine, atleast as far as regards its quality. At present quantity is far moreconsidered, and the result is that, in place of manufacturing reallyvaluable wines, they poison both themselves and all who have themisfortune to partake of it. It is only fair to add that onedescription, which I tasted at Mostar, appeared to be sound, and gavepromise of becoming drinkable after some months' keeping. The vinedisease, which showed itself some years back, has now disappeared; andthe crops, which during six or seven seasons deteriorated to anastonishing degree, have now reassumed their former healthy appearance. 

The numerous hills which intersect the province might also be coveredwith olive groves, and it would be of great advantage to the countrycould the people be induced to follow the example of their Dalmatianneighbours, who have covered almost inaccessible points of their countrywith that useful tree. 

The climate is well adapted to the nurture of the silkworm, and themulberry-tree flourishes luxuriantly throughout the province: were theseturned to account there can be little doubt that in a few years largequantities of silk might be exported. A few of the natives have rearedworms successfully for several years, and the silk thus obtained hasbeen employed for domestic purposes. The disease, which for so manyyears inflicted such serious loss on the silk producers of Europe, isunknown in the Herzegovina. Whether this immunity is to be attributed tothe climate, or the nature of the leaf upon which the silkworm feeds, itis impossible to say, but it is none the less a veritable fact. Cottonmight also be grown to a small extent, but the same drawbacks wouldapply here as elsewhere in Turkey, viz. The difficulty of obtaining, andthe high price of labour. 

This has been rapidly increasing during the last twelve years. In 1850, a mason or carpenter received five piastres or 10_d. _ a day, while acommon labourer obtained 6_d. _ Now the former finds no difficulty inearning 2_s. _ per diem, while the latter receives 1_s. _ 4_d. _ for shortdays, and 1_s. _ 6_d. _ for long days. The shorthandedness consequent uponthe Christian rising, has of course contributed to this rise in wages;but the province was at no time self-supporting in this respect. A largenumber of _scutors_ or labourers from Dalmatia cross the frontier in thespring, and hire themselves out during the summer months. The decreasein the number of these was, I am told, very perceptible during theItalian war, in consequence of the demand for recruits. 

The other products of the country are wool, hides, skins, honey, andwax, which are exported to Austria. Large numbers of sheep and hornedcattle are, moreover, annually exported to the Dalmatian markets. 

The only manufactures of which I could find specimens were coarsewoollen blankets, twist, and carpets. The blankets and carpets aremostly exported to Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Servia. Besides these, a kindof cotton cloth is made in the houses by the women, from importedcotton, and is applied solely to domestic uses, and is not regarded asan article of commerce. 

In considering the question of the trade of the Herzegovina, theattention should be directed, not so much to what it actually is, as towhat it might be under the fostering care of an enlightened government. And yet, it is not to the producing and consuming capabilities of theprovince itself that its possible importance in a commercial point ofview is attributable, but rather to its position on the confines of theEast and West, and to the fact of its containing within its limits thenatural outlets for the trade of that portion of the Ottoman empire. 

It is, in fact, in its relation to Bosnia, that it is entitled to mostattention; and if we deplore that such natural resources as itpossesses have not been more fully developed, we have still greaterreason to lament that the world is thus debarred communication with themost romantic and beautiful province of European Turkey. It is also thenatural route for the commerce of a portion of Servia, whose exports andimports would thus quickly pass to and from the sea. Its value, however, appears never to have been properly appreciated by the Turkishgovernment, and Omer Pacha, in 1852, was the first employé of that powerwho ever appreciated its importance in a commercial point of view. Heappears to have indicated the measures necessary for developing itsresources, and for attracting the trade of the neighbouring provincesfrom their expensive and indirect channel into their legitimate route. The prospects of the province were rapidly brightening under hissagacious administration, when Austria took alarm, and effectuallyimpeded all farther progress by closing the only port adapted for thetransmission of its mercantile resources. She thus secures for herself amonopoly of trade, forcing the inhabitants of all the Turkish provinces, in that quarter, to purchase their imports at high prices from her, andto sell their produce to Austrian merchants, who, fearing nocompetition, themselves determine its price. The object of Austria inthus retarding the development of Bosnia is sufficiently obvious, sincethat which would be a gain to Turkey would be a loss to herself. Andwere events so to dispose themselves as to render this probable, shewould doubtless find a pretext to justify a military occupation of thecountry. This she has done on several occasions, and the large force nowmassed upon the northern bank of the Save only awaits some nationaldemonstration to effect an armed intervention. This is, however, trenching upon another subject, to which I may have hereafter to allude. 

Approximate calculations of the trade of the Herzegovina show that theimports amount annually to about 150, 000_l. _, while the exports do notproduce more than 70, 000_l. _ This comparison proves that a very largeamount of specie must be extracted every year from the country, forwhich no material counterpoise exists, since the merchandise imported isto supply the wants of the people, and does not consequently tend toenrich the province. It follows therefore, naturally, that it isbecoming daily more poverty-stricken, and in place of advancing withadvancing civilisation, it is stagnating or even declining inprosperity. 

These imports are computed to amount to about 70, 000 horse-loads inquantity, while the transit trade to Bosnia is estimated at 50, 000 more. Of these about 10, 000 horse-loads are of salt from Dalmatia. 

The main source whence these provinces are supplied is Trieste, wherelarge depots exist, established expressly for this purpose. Thither thetraders proceed once a year, to lay in a supply of goods for the ensuingtwelve months. They purchase at credits varying from six to twelvemonths, paying high prices for a very indifferent class of goods. Theseconsist for the most part of cotton and woollen manufactures, cottontwist, silks, iron in bars sheets and plates, tin, lead, brass, hardware, glass, sugar, coffee, and other colonial products. Gold lace, velvet, and silks are also imported from Bosna Serai, and silks and somekinds of cotton prints from Constantinople by way of Salonica andSerajevo. Like most semi-civilised nations, the people of Herzegovinaare much addicted to showy colours in their dress. Those most in favourare scarlet, green, and blue; but the dyes soon fade, and the cloth isanything but durable. It is invariably of French or German manufacture;is of coarse quality, and is worn next the skin by the country people. In the towns, grey long cloths, dyed dark blue, constitute the principalarticle of clothing among the Christians, the general character of dressbeing the same throughout the province. The exports consist of sheep'swool, hides, sheep and goats' skins, furs, and wax, to Trieste; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, tallow, and eels, to Dalmatia; woollen blankets, redand yellow leather prepared from sheep skins, carpets, tobacco, wine, and fruits, to the neighbouring Turkish provinces. Pipe-sticks are alsosent from Bosna Serai, to Egypt, through the Herzegovina, while knives, manufactured at Foulcha from country-made steel, are also sent inconsiderable quantities to Egypt. All imports and exports pay a duty ofthree per cent. On their value, and until recently produce exported tothe neighbouring Turkish provinces paid the unreasonable duty of ten percent. This grievous impediment to commerce has, thanks to the efforts ofthe European Consuls, been abolished, and they now pay the same duty asexports to other countries. 

It may be noted, as a symptom of the centralising policy which the Porteis adopting, that the government now farms the customs of theseprovinces, in place of selling the right of doing so to the highestbidder, as was formerly the case. 

Having thus contrasted the actual with the possible condition of theprovince, we cannot but enquire the causes which lead thereto; and it isimpossible to disguise from ourselves, that to mal-administration isprimarily attributable this deplorable state of things. Add to this thetotal absence of all means of internal communication, and we have quitesufficient to cripple the energies of a more industrious and energeticpeople than those with whom we are dealing. The first object of thegovernment, then, should be to inspire the people with confidence in itsgood faith, and to induce them to believe that the results of theirlabour will not be seized by rapacious Pachas or exorbitant landowners;and, above all things, it is necessary that Turkish subjects, even ifthey are not accorded greater favours in their own country than those ofother powers, should at least be placed upon a footing of equality, which is far from being the case at present. 

It would appear that the government is really sincere in its intentionof making roads through the country generally, and when this is done anew era may be anticipated. In the whole of Bosnia and Herzegovina, onlyone road has until very recently existed. It was made by Omer Pacha in1851, and connects Bosna Serai with Brod, a town situated upon thesouthern bank of the Save. From Metcovich to Bosna Serai, which is thehigh road for the trade of the country, the line of route is but a pathformed by the constant traffic, and, while always difficult to traverse, is in winter frequently closed altogether. It is indispensable that acentral high road should be made, and no point could be moreadvantageously adopted as a base than the port of Klek, near whichasphalte is found in large quantities. 

Were a good trunk-road established, connecting that point with BosnaSerai, branch roads might soon be made throughout the province. Thenature of the country is not such as would render the difficulty ofdoing this insuperable, and the rivers over which it would pass arealready spanned by good and serviceable bridges, the relics of betterdays. That the expense attending it would soon be defrayed by theincreased traffic is acknowledged by all, and we may therefore hope erelong to see the deficiency remedied. 

CHAPTER VI. 

 Government--Mudirliks--Mulisarif--Cadi of Mostar--Medjlis--Its Constitution and Functions--Criminal and Commercial Tribunals--Revenue and Taxes--Virgu--Monayene-askereh--Customs--Tithes--Excise--Total Revenue--Police. 

The Herzegovina is divided into fourteen districts or mudirliks, namedas follows, viz. :--

 Districts Chief Towns No. Of Villages in each District Mostar Mostar 45 Duvno Duvno 25 Gliubinski 31 Stolatz Stolatz 22 Trebigné Trebigné 51 Niksich Niksich 28 Tashlijeh Tashlijeh 16 Priepolie 22 Chainitza Chainitza 14 Kolashin 56 Fochia Fochia Gasko Gasko 20 Nevresign Nevresign 14 Pogitel Pogitel 13[I]Konitza 19

These districts, with the exception of Mostar (which is the seat of theCentral Provincial Government), are under the supervision of a Mudir, who is assisted by a Council, a Cadi or Judge, and a Tax-collector. Theprovince is governed by a Mutisarif named from Constantinople, who issubject in certain things to the Pacha of Bosnia. The Mudirs areappointed by the Mutisarif, subject to the approval of the government atConstantinople. 

The Cadi of Mostar is a very important personage, and has all thedistrict Cadis under his orders. He is an unsalaried officer, hisremuneration consisting of the fees of office, and whatever else he canlay hands on. 

The Medjlis, or Council for the province, was selected by KiamilEffendi, the Turkish Commissioner in 1853, and vacancies have since beenfilled up by the votes of the majority of their number, subject toconfirmation at Constantinople. 

The Medjlis consists of about ten native Mussulmans, one Roman Catholic, and one Greek, so that the Christian interests are but indifferentlyrepresented. 

Appeal can be made against its decision to the Medjlis Kebir at BosnaSerai. 

All legal matters are arbitrated by the Medjlis since the abolition ofthe various tribunals, which were founded in 1857. One of these was forthe trial of criminal causes. It consisted of a President, and sixmembers, and another was a commercial tribunal for the settlement ofpetty commercial disputes. These have both fallen into abeyance; and, seeing that Christian evidence is not accepted in the civil causes, itis difficult to understand how the Christian population could ever havebenefited, at any rate by the latter. 

 * * * * *

_Revenues and taxes. _--The revenue of the province is derived from thefollowing sources, viz. --

_Virgu_ (income tax). 

_Monayene-askereh_, or the tax paid by the Christians in lieu ofmilitary service. It is, however, one of the grievances alleged by theChristians, who declare their willingness to serve; but as manyMussulmans would willingly pay the tax to be exempted from the chance ofenlistment, the hardship applies to all parties. 

_Customs, tithes, excise. _

The Virgu is a species of income tax, inasmuch as it is a rate leviedostensibly on the wealth of individuals; but, instead of being a percentage on the income, it has resolved itself into a mere capitationtax, and is ill-adapted, as such a tax must always be, to the relativewealth of individuals. A certain sum was arbitrarily fixed upon to bepaid by the province. The government appears to have omitted to enquirewhether the wealth of the country would enable it to pay so large a sumas that demanded. In 1853, the tax was divided into three portions, according to the numbers of each persuasion, and has been thus collectedever since. 

In the same sweeping manner these sums have been equally apportioned toeach household, poor and rich paying alike. Thus the Mussulmans, whopossess nearly all the land in the province, and who are generally inaffluent circumstances, but who form the smallest portion of thepopulation, pay least. The Virgu has been unscrupulously levied, and hasgiven rise to much discontent, more especially among the Latins, who arethe poorest classes. 

These complain bitterly, and harrowing stories are told of women, aboutto become mothers, being compelled to pay the tax on the chance of theinfant being a male. Such things may have occurred some years ago, butthe spirit of cruelty appears to have died out, or is at all events keptin the background by the Moslems of the present day. 

The Monayene-askereh was first imposed when the people were relievedfrom the Haradj. It is levied on males from fourteen to seventy, and wasfound so grievous, that the Porte has seen fit to direct that only aboutone-half of the original amount shall be raised. This alleviation hasexisted during the last three years. 

_Customs. _--These consist of a duty of three per cent. Ad valorem on allimports and exports to and from foreign countries, as well as the sameamount demanded under the form of transit dues for goods passing fromone Turkish province to another. This has lately been reduced from 12per cent. To its present rate. 

The next source of revenue is the amount realised by the tithes. Since1858 these have been farmed by the government, but previous to that yearthey were sold by auction, as in other provinces, to the highest bidder. The arrangement was complicated enough, for they underwent no less thanfour sales: 1st. In each district for the amount of the district. 2nd. At Mostar, where each district was again put up, and given to the personoffering 10 per cent. Above the price realised at the first sale. 3rd. At Bosna Serai for the entire province. And lastly at Constantinople, --thehighest bidder in this fourfold sale becoming the farmer. This systemexposed the tithe payers to much oppression, for it not uncommonlyhappened that the farmer found he had paid more for his purchase thanhe could legally claim from the people, so that, instead of 10 percent. , 15 or 20 per cent. Could alone remunerate him; and this he foundno difficulty in getting, as the government unfortunately bound itselfto help him. None but the farmers of the tithes really knew what theproduce was, so that any demand of theirs was considered by thegovernment to be a bonâ fide claim, and was upheld. 

The government was frequently cheated, and, further, defrauded of largesums of money, as in the case of Hadji Ali Pacha; but it is a questionwhether so much will be realised by the present system, since greaterfacilities exist for roguery on the part of the agriculturalists, to saynothing of the corruptness of its own officials. 

The excise consists of a per centage on the sale of wine, spirits, shot, lead, earthenware, snuff, tobacco, and salt; of tolls on produce broughtinto the towns for sale; of fees for permission to distil, to roast andgrind coffee, and to be a public weigher; also of a tax on takinganimals to the grazing grounds, [J] and of licenses to fish for eels andleeches: these are caught plentifully in the plain of Gabella whenflooded, and are of good quality. 

 * * * * *

_Revenue. _--The taxes of the province produce annually about 9, 135, 000piastres, taking the piastre at 2_d. _ English. 

This sum may be divided as follows: viz. --

 PiastresVirgu 1, 700, 000Tithes 5, 000, 000Monayene-askereh 1, 285, 000Customs 600, 000Excise 550, 000 --------- Total 9, 135, 000

The above shows that the province yields to the imperial treasury ayearly sum of about 79, 000_l. _ sterling, from a taxation of about 8_s. _per head on the population. The amount may appear small; but when it isconsidered that the taxes are not equitably levied, that the heaviestshare falls upon the poorest inhabitants, and that a great part of theamount is in direct taxation, it cannot be considered light. The burden, too, weighs with undue severity upon the faithful subjects of the Porte, since they are compelled to pay the share which would fall upon thosewho have rebelled against the Turkish authority. 

There is one branch of the public administration which eminentlyrequires readjustment. This is the police force. Ill-paid and badlyorganised, it follows as a matter of course that it is inefficient toperform the duties required of it. It is divided into horse and foot, and is paid as follows per month:--

 Horse PiastresBinbashee (or Chief Officer) 1, 000 per monthUzbashee (or Captain) 600 "Tchonch (Corporal or Sergeant) 250 "Nefer (Private) 150 "

 Foot PiastresTchonch 100 per monthNefer 75 "

The Zaptiehs have frequently duties to perform which should only beintrusted to men of honesty and sagacity, and it is consequently ofgreat importance to render the service attractive to trustworthy men. Toeffect this the pay, more especially in the lower grades, should beincreased, and circumspection used in the selection of recruits. Atpresent this is far from being the case, many men of notoriously badcharacter being employed, and these are driven to peculation and theftfor the means of supporting life. The mounted portion find their ownhorses and forage, is very dear in many parts of the province. 

[Footnote I: Many of the villages on the Montenegrin frontier no longerexist, having been fired by the insurgents. ]

[Footnote J: These are principally on the western banks of the Narenta, outside Mostar. ]

CHAPTER VII. 

 Omer Pacha--Survey of Montenegro--Mostar--Bazaars--Mosques--Schools--Old Tower--Escape of Prisoners--Roman Bridge--Capture by Venetians--Turkish Officers--Pacha's Palace--European Consulates--Clock-Tower--Emperor's Day--Warlike Preparations--Christian Volunteers--Orders to March. 

During the week which intervened between my arrival and the removal ofhead-quarters to the seat of war, I had several interviews with OmerPacha. On these occasions he showed much kindness of disposition, andtook great trouble to explain to me the arrangements which he made forthe prosecution of the war against Montenegro in 1852, and to describethe nature of campaigning in that province. 

He expressed himself much pleased with a map of Montenegro which I hadpresented to him, drawn by Major Cox, R. E. , British Commissioner fordetermining the new boundary line, but detected the absence of one ortwo traversable paths, the existence of which I found to be correct whenI subsequently accompanied the army to those districts. The map, however, I may observe, is very superior, both in accuracy andminuteness of detail, to any other survey which has as yet appeared. 

While awaiting the departure of the Generalissimo for the seat of war, to which he had kindly invited me to accompany him, I employed myself inwandering about those crooked byways, and studying the many phases ofTurco-European humanity. That my impressions of the town were veryfavourable, I am not prepared to state; but I believe that in point ofcleanliness it is superior to many. It is situated on both banks of theNarenta, in a gorge which opens out into two small plains, at its N. AndS. Extremities. The eastern and larger part is built on an acclivity, and contains the bazaar, government offices, and the houses of thetraders and the richer inhabitants. The western part is occupied by thepoorer classes, who are for the most part Catholics, and are employed inagricultural pursuits. The gardens, which supply the town withvegetables, are upon this side, and the soil is more fruitful, thoughmarshy and feverish. On the eastern side it is healthy, sandy, and dry. The dwelling-houses are generally small and comfortless, indifferentlybuilt, and roofed with stone. As in India, they are always surroundedwith a compound--for it cannot be called garden--which gives the town arambling and extended appearance. 

The shops are small and ill-supplied, and the streets narrow andtortuous, except the two main ones, which are tolerably broad, and runparallel to each other in a nearly straight course N. And S. They haveraised footpaths, roughly constructed, and swarming with animal life, asis to be expected in the luxurious East. There are no fewer than thirtymosques in the town, whose minarets give it a beautiful and picturesqueappearance, albeit that the buildings themselves are imperfect, andungainly in architectural detail. The Mussulmans have a school in thetown, where Turkish and Slavish are taught. Girls are, however, debarredthis advantage, and indeed no institution of any kind exists throughoutthe province for their training or instruction. The result is that thefemale population is, if possible, in a lower state of degradation thanthe male. The religious and secular education of the Christians is aslittle considered as that of the Mussulmans. Thus the only place ofworship which the Greeks possess is a small chapel on the outskirts, towhich is attached a school for boys, which is attended by about twohundred children. Since Omer Pacha's arrival during the past year, apeal of bells has been placed in this chapel. The superstition whichprevails amongst Turks, 'that bells drive away good spirits from theabodes of men, ' renders this concession the more grateful, and it isonly another proof that the Mussulmans of the present day are not sointolerant as they are represented. No restrictions, indeed, are placedupon religious ceremonies or public processions of any kind. Withregard to church bells, I may add that their use has always beenconsidered tantamount to a recognition of Christianity as theestablished religion of the place. In some towns, where Christianspredominated, the concession had been made long before theirintroduction at Mostar. 

The Roman Catholics have no church in Mostar. Service is performed atthe Austrian Consulate, and also at a convent, about two miles distant, where the Bishop of Mostar resides. This circumstance has led to theconcentration of the Catholic community in that neighbourhood. TheCatholic school for boys adjoins the convent; it is, however, thinlyattended, and but indifferently conducted. 

The British Consulate being closed in consequence of the absence of theVice-Consul, M. Zohrab, who was acting as temporary Consul at BosnaSerai, I took up my abode at a khan overlooking the river. The situationwas pretty, and the house newly restored; but this did not deprive it ofsome relics of animal life, which somewhat disturb the equanimity of thenew comer, but which he soon learns to regard with indifference. Descending the stairs, and passing through the stable, which is, as isusually the case, immediately beneath the lodging rooms, we must turnsharply to the right; and, after clambering up some rough and brokensteps, we arrive at the main street, which runs for about a milethrough the centre of the town, varied only by arched gateways placed atintervals along its course. Against the first of these a Turkish sentryindolently leans, if he be not seated on the kerbstone at the corner. Passing through this we come to a second gate, where the peacefultraveller, unconscious of offence, is angrily accosted. The meaning ofall this is that he is requested to throw away and stamp upon hiscigarette, the old tower on the left being used as a magazine. Round ita weak attempt at a _place d'armes_ is apparent, Omer Pacha havingordered some of the neighbouring houses to be pulled down. Nor was thisdone before it was necessary, a fire having broken out a short timebefore in its vicinity. On that occasion the inhabitants destroyed a fewhouses, and imagined the fire to be extinguished. The wind rose, and itbroke out again, taking the direction of the magazine. Upon this, thewhole population took to the country, and the prisoners, who werelocated close by, escaped in the general confusion. Had it not beenprovidentially extinguished, the _place of Mostar would have known it nomore_. The prison is a plain white house, which does not look at all asif it had ever been the sort of place to have long defied the ingenuityof a Jack Sheppard, or even an accomplished London house-breaker of ourown day. 

The tower to which allusion has been made is built on the eastern side, and immediately above the beautiful bridge which spans the Narenta, andfor which Mostar[K] has ever been famous. The Turks attribute itserection to Suleyman the Magnificent, but it was probably built by theEmperor Trajan or Adrian, since the very name of the town would implythe existence of a bridge in very early days. The Turkish inscriptions, which may be traced upon the abutments at the E. End of the bridge, probably refer to some subsequent repairs. At any rate too much reliancemust not be placed in them, as the Turks have been frequently convictedof removing Roman inscriptions and substituting Turkish ones in theirplace. The beauty of the bridge itself is heightened by the glimpse tobe obtained of the mosques and minarets of Mostar, washed by the turbidwaters of the Narenta, and backed by the rugged hills which hem it in. 'It is of a single arch, 95 ft. 3 in. In span, and when the Narenta islow, about 70 feet from the water, or, to the top of the parapet, 76feet. '[L]

There is a second tower at the extremity of the bridge on the left bank, which is said to be of more modern construction. 

Mostar is not a fortified city, nor is it important in a strategicalpoint of view. The only traces of defensive works which exist areportions of a crenellated wall of insignificant construction. Thisaccounts for the ease with which the Venetians were enabled to takepossession of and burn its suburbs by a sudden raid in 1717. 'The townwas built, ' says Luccari, 'in 1440, by Radigost, Major-Domo of StefanoCosaccia;' but in asserting this, he overlooks the existence of theRoman road to Trebigné, which is very superior to anything built byeither Slaves or Turks, and places its Roman origin beyond a doubt. Somesuppose it to be the ancient Sarsenterum. That it was selected by theTurks as the capital of the province immediately after the conquest, andconsiderably enlarged, appears very probable, and the towers which flankthe bridge were probably built at that period or a little earlier, though the eastern one is said to be raised upon a Roman basement. 

Continuing our ramble we pass through another gate, and come to anuncomfortable looking hill. We have not to mount far, however, before weapproach an archway, with two sentries, rather more alert than theothers whom we have seen. Officers are passing backwards and forwards, looking fussy and important, as Turks always do when they get rid oftheir habitual apathy. In their small waisted coats _à la Française_, surmounted by the _inevitable fez_, they present a strange combinationof the Eastern and Western soldier. 

The house in the interior of the court-yard is the palace, usuallyoccupied by the Mulisarif, but devoted, during his stay in these parts, to Omer Pacha, the Serdar Ekrem and Rumili Valessi, or Governor-Generalof European Turkey. In the vicinity of the palace may be seen theflagstaffs of the Prussian and Austrian Consulates, while that of GreatBritain appears at no great distance, and in the rear of theclock-tower, which distinguishes Mostar from most other Turkish towns. Let us now return to the main street, which continues in unbrokenmonotony for something less than half a mile. If gifted with sufficientpatience to continue our stroll out of the town, we come upon theprincipal burial-ground. On the E. High hills hem us in, while the tinystream of the Narenta comes winding from the N. 

During my stay at Mostar the town was enlivened by the occurrence of theEmperor Alexander's birthday, or the 'Emperor's day, ' as it is called. In celebration of this auspicious event, the Russian Consul kept openhouse, everyone who could muster decent apparel being admitted. Afterthe ceremony of blessing the Muscovite flag had been performed by theGreek Bishop, a select few sat down to a kind of breakfast, which didcredit to the hospitality of his Imperial Majesty's representative. Thither I accompanied Omer Pacha, who was attended by a small suite. This was the only occasion on which I ever observed anything likedisplay in the Turkish General. His gold-embroidered dress resembledthat of a Marshal of France; his breast was literally covered withdecorations, in the centre of which was the Grand Cross of the Bath, andhe carried a magnificently-jewelled sword, the gift of the late Sultan, Abdul Medjid. He did not, however, remain long, and on emerging I couldnot help contrasting the festivities within with the signs of warlikepreparation which jostled one at every turn, the first fruits, in greatmeasure, of Russian imperial policy. Strings of ponies laden withforage, and provisions for the army on the frontier, passedcontinuously, and the streets presented a more than usually gay andvariegated appearance. Omer Pacha was throughout indefatigable. Detachments of irregulars arrived daily, some of which were immediatelypushed up to the scene of operations; others were retained at Mostar;but whether they went, or stayed behind, he inspected them alike, andwas always received with marked enthusiasm. I must not omit to mentionthat amongst these reinforcements was a body of 1, 000 Christians, who, however, were never sent to the frontier. Fine fellows they were, allarmed with rifles of native construction. These arms of precision aremostly made in Bosnia, where there are two or three establishments forthat purpose. 

Thus the days wore on; and, having provided myself with horses, and suchfew things as are deemed indispensable for campaigning, I was delightedto receive a message from the Generalissimo, on the night of the 13th, intimating his intention of leaving Mostar at 8 (_à la Franca_) on thefollowing morning. 

But before I enter upon my personal experiences in the camp of theOsmanlis, I would fain give some account of the previous history of thisagitated province; passing in brief review those causes which combinedto foster a revolutionary spirit in the country, and dwelling moreespecially on the events of the last four years, during which thatspirit has so culminated as to convince even the Porte of the necessitywhich exists for the immediate employment of coercive measures. 

[Footnote K: Mostar, from 'Most Star' Old Bridge. ]

[Footnote L: Sir G. Wilkinson. ]

CHAPTER VIII. 

 Bosnia--Turkish Invasion--Tuartko II. And Ostoya Christich--Cruel Death of Stephen Thomasovich--His Tomb--Queen Cattarina--Duchy of Santo Saba becomes a Roman Province--Despotism of Bosnian Kapetans--Janissaries--Fall of Sultan Selim and Bairaktar--Mahmoud--Jelaludin Pacha--Expedition against Montenegro--Death of Jelaludin--Ali Pacha--Revolted Provinces reconquered--Successes of Ibrahim Pacha--Destruction of Janissaries--Regular Troops organised--Hadji Mustapha--Abdurahim--Proclamation--Fall of Serayevo--Fresh rising--Serayevo taken by Rebels--Scodra Pacha--Peace of Adrianople--Hussein Kapetan--Outbreak of Rebellion--Cruelty of Grand Vizier--Ali Aga of Stolatz--Kara Mahmoud--Serayevo taken--War with Montenegro--Amnesty granted. 

The history of Bosnia under the Roman empire is possessed of too littleinterest to call for any particular observation; but, considered as oneof the most fertile and beautiful of the European provinces, overrun bythe Moslem armies, it is well entitled to the mature consideration ofall who take an interest in the important question now at issue, to wit, the fusion of the Eastern and Western worlds. 

The immediate cause of the invasion of Bosnia by the Turks, was thedispute between Tuartko II. And Ostoya Christich for the throne of thatcountry. The former called the Turks to his assistance; Ostoya, theHungarians. A war between these two nations was the consequence, andthe Turks gained considerable footing in Bosnia about 1415. Ostoya andTuartko being both dead, Stephen Thomas Christich was elected King, andwas obliged to promise an annual tribute of 25, 000 ducats to SultanAmurath II. , thirteen years after which he was murdered by hisillegitimate son, Stephen Thomasovich, who was crowned by a Papal legatein 1461, and submitted to the Turks. But having refused to pay thetribute due to the Porte, he was seized and flayed alive, by order ofSultan Mahomet, and at his death the kingdom of Bosnia was completelyover-thrown. [M]

Previous to this, the Turks had frequently menaced the Bosnian kingdom, but it was not until June 14, 1463, that they actually invaded thecountry, to reduce Stephen to obedience. In vain did Mathias, King ofHungary, endeavour to stem the advancing torrent. The Turks carried allbefore them, until they besieged and took Yanitza, the then capital ofthe province, and with it the King and the entire garrison. Nor was thiseffected in fair fight, but through the treachery of Stephen's firstminister, who opened the gates of the fortress by night, and so admittedthe Turkish soldiers. 

With more generosity than was usually shown by these Eastern barbarians, Mahomet agreed to leave the King in possession of his throne oncondition of his paying an annual tax to the Porte. The payment of this, as I have said, was evaded by his successor, although the old nationalmanuscripts do not even allow this apology for the barbarous treatmentwhich he experienced at the hands of the Turks. These affirm that theKing and all his troops, as well as the townspeople, were invited byMahomet to hear the official ratification of the agreement. But, at agiven signal, the Turkish soldiers, who had been in concealment, fellupon the helpless assemblage, and massacred them in cold blood, shuttingup the King Stephen in a cage, where he subsequently died of despair;and thus ended the Bosnian kingdom. That his position was sufficientlyhopeless to bring about this calamitous result, can scarcely be doubted;but unfortunately the tomb of Stephen still exists, which provestolerably conclusively that his death was of a more speedy, if not of amore cruel, nature. An inscription is upon it to the effect, 'Here liesStephen, King of Bosnia, without his kingdom, throne, and sceptre, andwithout his skin. ' Of all the family of the unfortunate monarch, theonly one who escaped was his Queen, Cattarina, who fled to Rome, whereshe lies buried in the Chapel of Santa Helena. 

After the death of Stephen Thomasovich the Turks destroyed Michiaz. Thenobles, driven from their estates, fled to Ragusa; and Stephen, 'Herzog' or Duke of Santo Saba, seeing that Turkish garrisons hadoccupied Popovo, Rogatiza, Triburio, Tzeruitza, and Kerka, became soalarmed, that he offered to pay increased tribute; when, his ministersrefusing to consent to this arrangement, he was obliged to send toRagusa for his eldest son Stephen, and give him up as a hostage to thePorte: he having afterwards abjured Christianity, received the name ofAhmet, married a daughter of Bajazet II. , and was made a Vizier. TheKingdom of Bosnia and the Duchy of Santo Saba from that time becameprovinces of Turkey, the latter under the name of Herzegovina, which itstill retains, and which it had received from the title of 'Herzog' orDuke, given by Tuartko to its first Governor. 

The apostasy of the Bosnian nobles which occurred shortly after theTurkish conquest, may be regarded as the only event of importance whichhas since marked the history of these provinces. The deterioratingeffects which have ever followed the adoption of Islamism are hereconspicuously apparent; for in proportion as the country has sunk intoinsignificance, so the moral state of the people has fallen to a lowerstandard. Nor is this so much to be attributed to any particular vicesinculcated by the Mahomedan creed, as to the necessary division ofreligious and political interests, and the undue monopoly of power by asmall proportion of the inhabitants. That this power has been usedwithout mercy or consideration must be acknowledged; but be itremembered that

 'Their tyrants then Were still at least their countrymen, '

and that the iniquities perpetrated by the renegade Beys cannot be withjustice laid to the charge of their Osmanli conquerors. It would, indeed, be strange had four hundred years of tyranny passed over thismiserable land, without leaving a blight upon its children which no timewill ever suffice to efface. 

As years wore on, other and more important conquests absorbed theattention of the Mussulman rulers, and the rich pasture-lands of Bosnia, and the sterile rocks of Herzegovina, were alike left the undisputedproperty of the apostate natives of the soil. Thence arose a system offeudal bondage, to a certain extent akin to that recently existing inRussia, but unequalled in the annals of the world for the spirit ofintolerance with which it was carried out. Countless are the tales ofcruelty and savage wrong with which the old manuscripts of the countryabound, and these are the more revolting, as perpetrated upon those ofkindred origin, religion, and descent. The spirit of independenceengendered by this system of feudality and unresisted oppression couldonly lead to one result--viz. The increase of local at the expense ofthe central authority. The increasing debility of the paternalgovernment tended to strengthen the power of the provincial Magnates;and the Beys, the Spahis, and the Timariots, stars of lesser magnitudein their way, could not but be expected to adhere to the cause of theall-powerful Kapetans rather than to the transient power of a Vizierappointed by the Porte. 

This last-named official, whose appointment was then, as now, acquiredby successful intrigue or undisguised bribery, was never certain of longtenure of office, and invariably endeavoured by all the means in hispower to remunerate himself while the opportunity should last. 

The disregard entertained for life in those times, and the indifferencemanifested by the Ottoman government for this portion of the empire, often rendered it the safer policy for the Vizier to make common causewith the recusant Kapetans, who were too powerful to be subdued byforce, and too wily to be entrapped by treachery or fraud. 

But another and more self-subsistent power had taken deep rootthroughout the Ottoman dominions, and nowhere more than in thoseprovinces which lie between the Save and the Adriatic. 'In Egypt, ' saysRanke, 'there was the power of the Mameluke Beys revived immediatelyafter the departure of the French; there was the protectorate of theDere Beys in Asia Minor; the hereditary authority of the Albanianchieftains, the dignity of the Ayans in the principal towns, besidesmany other immunities--all of which seemed to find a bond of union and acentre in the powerful order of the Janissaries. ' Of all the provincesof the empire Bosnia was perhaps the most deeply imbued with the spiritof this faction, the last memento of that ancient chivalry which hadcarried fire and sword over a great part of civilised Europe. 

But to that same spirit of turbulent independence, the very germ ofexistence of the Janissaries, and so predominant among the natives ofBosnia, may in a great measure be attributed the successes of theTurkish arms in Europe in the campaign of 1828, an era fraught withdanger to the whole Ottoman empire, dangers which the newly-organisedbattalions of the imperial army would have been unable to overcome butfor the aid of the wild horsemen of the West. That the same spiritexists as did in bygone times I do not say; but whatever does yet remainof chivalrous endurance or reckless daring is to be found among theMussulman, and not amongst the Christian, population. 

Towards the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenthcentury, affairs assumed so critical an aspect that it became incumbentupon the central government to adopt some coercive measure. Sultan Selimwas the first who endeavoured to suppress these turbulent spirits. Hewas unequal to the task, and fell a victim to their revengefuldispleasure. 'Bairaktar, the hero of those times, ' was equallyunsuccessful, and the imperial authority bid fair to perish from theland; but in those days there arose one who, like our own Cromwell, moulded circumstances to his will, resolute of purpose, fearing andsparing none. But if Mahmoud was stern and inexorable to rebels, he isentitled to more praise than is usually accorded him, for thesteadfastness of purpose with which he applied himself to therestoration of system and order, in the place of the chaos which he hadhimself brought about. And let us not omit to mention the dignifiedcourage with which he prepared to meet the calamities which now crowdedthick upon him. With the mere nucleus of a semi-organised army he heldout for two years, both in Europe and Asia, without one ally, againstthe herculean efforts of Russia to overthrow his kingdom. 

There are not wanting those who, besides stigmatising him as deceitfuland cruel, cast in his teeth that he failed to carry out the schemes ofreform, which they consider to have been visionary and unmeaning. Butthese, while commenting on what he left undone, forget how much he did, and how little aid he received from without. Well would it be for Turkeythis day had either of his sons inherited the vigour, the perseverance, or even the honesty of old Mahmoud. 

Since the accession of Mahmoud to the throne, Bosnia and Herzegovinahave been the seat of perpetual, though intermittent, warfare. Shorttime did he allow to elapse before he gave unmistakable signs of hisdetermination to effect a radical change in the state of theseprovinces. With this view he sent as Vizier Jelaludin Pacha thither, with orders to punish with extreme severity all who should show anysigns of discontent. This man, who is said to have belonged to the sectof Bektashi, an order of Mahomedan monks, did not live like otherPachas. He neither kept a harem nor a court, and devoted himselfexclusively to fulfilling the duties of his mission. To do this moreeffectually, he used to go about in disguise, visiting even theChristian places of worship, and thus obtaining a real knowledge of thefeelings and wishes of the people. Now as he practised incorruptible, inexorable justice, his rule was as popular among the Rayahs as it wasodious to the Bosnian nobles, against whose independence all his lawsand measures were directed. 

Having taken Mostar and Trebinitza by storm, he at length succeeded insubduing the whole country. Although nominally recalled, in deference toa petition preferred by the nobles of Bosnia, Jelaludin was in realityadvanced to a more exalted position of confidence. To him was intrustedthe conduct of an expedition against Montenegro, which failed; andlittle more is heard about him until 1821, when he died, as some think, by poison administered by his own hand. 

In conformity with a preconceived plan of operations, an expedition wassent in 1820 against Ali Pacha, the most powerful of those who hadventured to throw off the Ottoman rule. 

The operations were successful both by sea and land, and at first allappeared to be progressing satisfactorily. But the extraordinaryfertility of resource which characterised the old man, saved him oncemore; and while the Suliots in his pay overran Epirus in 1821, hesucceeded in rousing the whole Greek population to revolt. Although hehimself fell during the outbreak, the disastrous results which he hadsucceeded in effecting lived long after him, not only in Greece, but inBulgaria, Bosnia, and other parts of the Turkish empire. 

The death of Jelaludin, and the revolutionary movement which had spreadthroughout the empire, led to the restoration of the old state of thingsin Bosnia. The powerful nobles once more resumed their sway, and the fewsupporters of the Sultan were compelled to fly the country. 

The reconquest by the Porte of the revolted countries, and the mightychange which the iron hand of Mahmoud effected in the internal conditionand administration of all parts of his empire, cannot be more forciblydescribed than in the words of Ranke. He says: 'We must recollect thatthe Sultan succeeded in extinguishing all these rebellions, one afteranother, as soon as he had put down the most formidable. We will notenquire by what means this was effected: enough to say, that he at lastre-established his authority on the Danube, as in Epirus. Even the Moreaseemed doomed to a renewal of the Moslem sway. Ibrahim Pacha landedthere with the troops from Egypt in 1825. He annihilated rather thansubjugated its population, and changed the country, as he himself said, into a desert waste; but at least he took possession of it, step bystep, and everywhere set up the standard of the Sultan. '

Having been so far successful, the Sultan adopted a more comprehensiveplan. 

Mahomed Ali's successful enterprises served as his model from the first. Mahomed Ali led the way in Egypt by the annihilation of ancientprivileges, and it was not until he had succeeded that Mahmoud resolvedto pursue a similar course. 

'A fearful rivalry in despotism and destruction then began between thetwo. They might be compared to the reapers in Homer, cutting down thecorn in all directions. But the vassal had been long engaged in aprocess of innovation. In spite of the opposition of his Janissaries, hehad accomplished his purpose of establishing regular regiments, clothedand disciplined after the European system. ' The fact that it was thesetroops which, after so many fruitless attempts, at last conqueredGreece, made a profound impression on the Sultan. He reverted to theideas of Selim and Bairaktar, and the establishment of regular troopsseemed to him the only salvation of his empire. Therefore, on May 28, 1826, in a solemn sitting of his Council of State, at which theCommissioner who had lately been in Ibrahim's camp was present, waspronounced the 'fetwah, ' that, 'In order to defend God's word andcounteract the superiority of the unbelievers, the Moslems, too, wouldsubmit to subordination, and learn military manœuvres. ' The subversionof ancient privileges, then, was the fundamental basis upon which hisreforms rested, and to this the destruction of the Janissaries put thefinishing touch. 

If Mahmoud found difficulty in carrying out his plans at Stamboul, howmuch more hard must they have been to accomplish in the provinces; andof these, as I have before said, Bosnia was the most strongly imbuedwith a spirit of independent feudalism. 

In Bosnia, therefore, as was anticipated, the greatest resistance to theinnovation was experienced. 

Upon the death of Jelaludin, Hadji Mustapha had been appointed Vizier, aman of small capacity, and little suited to those stormy times. 

He, and the six commissioners who had been sent with him fromConstantinople, were driven out, and compelled to take refuge inServia, whence they returned to Constantinople. 

Again the dominion of the Sultan in these provinces appeared to hangupon a slender thread; and indeed it was only saved by the sagacity of asingle man. 

Upon the ejection of Hadji Mustapha, Abdurahim, the Pacha of Belgrade, was appointed Vizier of Bosnia. Gifted with great penetration andability for intrigue, he contrived to win over many of the nativechieftains, while he worked upon the jealousy entertained by the Princeof Servia for the Bosnian nobles, and thus succeeded in raising a smallarmy, with which he took the initiative in hostilities. Ranke tells us:'He was fortunate enough to secure the assistance of the KapetanVidaitch of Svornik. Svornik is regarded as the key of Bosnia. It seemsthat the Agas of Serayevo had already conceived some suspicion ofVidaitch, for they were themselves about to take possession of theplace. But Abdurahim anticipated them, and Vidaitch admitted him intothe fortress. '

A paramount advantage was gained by this. Abdurahim now felt strongenough to speak in a decisive tone in the Bujurdi, in which he announcedhis arrival. 

'I send you from afar, ' he therein said, 'O Mahomedans of Bosnia, thegreeting of the faith, and of brotherly union. I will not call to mindyour folly: I come to open your eyes to the light. I bring you the mostsacred commands of our most mighty Sultan, and expect you will obeythem. In that case I have power to forgive you all your errors; choosenow for yourselves. It rests with you to save or to lose your lives. Reflect maturely, that you may have no cause to repent. '

This proclamation, which may be regarded as a model of terseness andexpressive earnestness, had a wonderful effect. Still Serayevo was notgained without a struggle, confined however principally to the citizenswithin its walls. 

Upon gaining possession of the town, the new Vizier carried out to theletter the judgements which he had pronounced against the contumacious. All who were taken in arms were put to death without mercy, and it wasnot until he had taken a bloody vengeance on his enemies that heconsented to make a triumphal entry into Serayevo. 

During the feudal times, when the Sultan's authority was more nominal, the Vizier was only permitted to remain a few hours in the capital, whence he returned to his palace at Travnik; but Abdurahim deemed itnecessary to establish the seat of government in that very town, whichhad ever been the focus of feudality and rebellion. 

'Thus there was once more a master in Bosnia. No one ventured now tomention the Janissaries. The uniforms arrived; the Kapetans wereobedient, and put them on. The whole land submitted to the newregulations. '

Notwithstanding the high pressure system adopted by the Sultan, thespirit of rebellion was still rife, and it manifested itself on thefirst opportunity that occurred. 

The Machiavellian policy of endeavouring to hold both the Servians andBosnians in check, by pitting the one against the other, was of doubtfulexpediency; and, as the event proved, tended materially to weaken theimperial cause by depriving it of the aid of the Bosnian irregulars, whohad acquired a name for reckless daring second to none. The outbreak ofthe Russian war was the signal for another attempt to obtain theindependence of which Abdurahim had robbed them. At this juncture, too, they displayed the mixture of violence and cunning, so essentially thecharacter of barbarous nations. 

From every castle and town, the troops marched to the Eagle's Field, Orlovopolie, close by Bielina, their appointed rendezvous. The Vizierintended soon to repair thither with forces from Serayevo. Whilstpreparing to do so, it happened that the people of Visoko, anunimportant place about six German miles from Serayevo, arrived beforethat capital, instead of marching direct to Orlovopolie, as they shouldhave done. The Vizier sent out his Kiaia, and some of the principalinhabitants of the city, to call them to account for the unauthorisedchange in their line of march. A Kapidji Bashi, who had just arrivedfrom Constantinople, accompanied the mission, and gave it still moreimportance; but it was unquestionably a concerted scheme amongst theleading men of Visoko and Serayevo. Thousands of inhabitants had alreadygone, many no doubt from mere curiosity--for it was Friday, a day onwhich the Turks do not work--but others with a distinct purpose. Whenthe mission angrily demanded that the force should march off forthwithto the appointed place, some poor inhabitants of Visoko stepped out ofthe ranks and declared that, without money, they were not in a positionto proceed a step farther; that even only to equip themselves, and marchas far as they had already arrived, some of them had been obliged tosell their children. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia thought that suchlanguage was not to be borne. Without hesitation, therefore, inaccordance with the principles of Turkish justice, they ordered theirfollowers to seize the speakers, to take them away, and behead them. Theorder, however, was not so easy of execution. 'Help, true believers inthe Prophet!' exclaimed the men; 'help, and rescue us. ' All seized theirweapons, the comrades of the prisoners as well as the inhabitants ofSerayevo, who were privy to the scheme, and those who were hurried alongby their example. The Kapidji Bashi and the Kiaia had not time to mounttheir horses, but were obliged to run to the city on foot, with bulletswhistling after them. The furious armed multitude arrived there withthem. The Vizier's force, about two thousand strong, attempted for awhile to stem the torrent. They tried to stand their ground whereverthey found a position, such as a bridge, a mosque, or a house, but werefar too weak to maintain it. Only a small number had time to retire intothe fortress, where the Vizier was, and thence they fired with the fewcannon they had on the lower town. But the Bosnians, with their smallarms, did far more execution, singling out their enemies, and bringingthem down with sure aim. The fighting continued for three days. At lastAbdurahim found himself compelled to think of his own safety. TheBosnians, who found themselves victorious, would gladly have refused himleave to retire; but the older and more experienced among them, satisfied with the success they had obtained, persuaded the young peopleto let him go. On the fourth day, a Thursday in July 1828, Abdurahimmarched away. He took the road to Orlovopolie, being allowed to takewith him the cannons he had brought. There, however, he found that thespirit of disaffection had gained such head, that nearly all thesoldiers, whom he had expected to find, had dispersed and gone to theirhomes. He thereupon repaired to Travnik, and was shortly afterwardsreplaced by another Vizier of milder temper. 

The state of the empire now appeared more settled, both in its domesticand foreign relations, the peace of Adrianople having at any rate savedthe capital from fear of an attack. What success the Sultan might havehad in his endeavours to consolidate his rule in Bosnia, we are unableto judge; since he found an antagonist to every species of reform inMustapha Pacha of Scutari, commonly known as Scodra Pacha, the mostmischievous, as well as the most powerful, of all the provincialmagnates since the fall of Ali Pacha. Young, warlike, and of gooddescent, he constituted himself the champion of hereditary privileges, and as such virtually threw down the gauntlet to his imperial master. Open rebellion, however, was not the plan which he proposed to himselfby which to attain the object dearest to his heart--the re-embodiment ofthe Janissaries, and the establishment of the old order of things. Tothis end he consented, in 1823, to make a demonstration against theGreek rebels, but took very good care not to render too much service tothe cause which he espoused. Thus, too, when he marched in the autumn of1828 to the vicinity of the Danube, at the head of an army of 25, 000irregulars, it was not with the intention of attacking the Russians, butrather under the expectation that the necessities of the Sultan wouldafford him an opportunity of procuring the re-establishment of those'Prætorian guards of Turkey. ' The arrogant pretensions of Scodra Pachawere very strongly exemplified in the attitude which he assumed at theclose of the campaign of 1829. Having in the first instance shown muchdilatoriness in entering the field, he remained inactive near Widdinduring the latter part of 1828 and the commencement of 1829, when, byoperating in the rear of the Russians, he might have been most useful tothe Turkish Seraskier. The treaty of peace, however, had been signed, and forwarded for ratification to Russia, when Scodra Pacha suddenlyelectrified both parties by objecting to its terms, and announcing hisintention of continuing the war. He even marched to Philippopolis, whence he sent a message that he would arrive at Adrianople within eightdays. This naturally caused Marshal Diebitsch some anxiety, since he wasunaware of the Pacha's real policy, and believed him to be sincere inhis protestations of vengeance against the invaders. A hasty summons wastherefore sent to General Geismar, who consequently crossed the Danubeat Rachova; and having turned, and subsequently forced, the Pass ofAnatcha in the Balkans, easily defeated the Pacha, who made but smallresistance. This and the approach of General Kisselef from Schumla put afinishing stroke to hostilities, and Scodra returned home to brood overthe ill-success of his undertaking, and plan farther means of workingmischief to the hated Mahmoud. 

The opportunity soon presented itself. Having succeeded in riddinghimself of some of the Albanian leaders, the Sultan applied himself withvigour to the subjection of those in Bosnia who were adverse to hisrule. In 1830 he sent uniforms to Travnik, which the Vizier immediatelydonned. This kindled the spark, and in the beginning of 1831 severalthousand insurgents, under the command of Hussein Kapetan, the 'Sonai odBosna, ' or Dragon of Bosnia, attacked him in his fortress, and made himprisoner. So great was the abhorrence professed for the adoption ofChristian clothing, that the unfortunate Vizier was compelled to performsolemn ablutions and to recite Moslem prayers, in order to purifyhimself from contamination. The standard of rebellion was now fairlyunfurled, and within a few weeks a force of 25, 000 men had collected. Atthe same time Mustapha Pacha, with 40, 000 Albanians and others, made hisappearance on the scene of action. Without delay an advance was made _enpotence_, and it was confidently anticipated that Stamboul would fallbefore the insurgent arms. But the Sultan possessed both a cunning andable lieutenant in the Grand Vizier Redschid. This functionary contrivedto dispense bribes so judiciously among the inferior Albanianchieftains, that they deserted en masse to the Turks, and thus renderedit imperative on Mustapha to take refuge in his fortress at Scutari. This he did in the anticipation of speedy relief by Hussein Kapetan andthe Bosnians, who, despite the dissuasion of the Servian Prince Milosch, had already marched to the rescue. Hussein's answer to Milosch, as givenby Ranke, is very characteristic of the man: 'Take heed to thyself, ' hesaid; 'thou hast but little food before thee: I have overturned thybowl. I will have nothing to do with a Sultan with whom thou canstintercede for me; I am ready to meet thee, always and anywhere; my swordhad smitten before thine was forged. ' More modest and unpresuming wasthe burden of the song which they are reported to have chanted on themarch:--

 We march, brethren, to the plains of Kossovo, Where our forefathers lost their renown and their faith. There it may chance that we also may lose our renown and our faith; Or that we shall maintain them, and return as victors to Bosnia. 

Animated by principles which would have done credit to a Christian host, these undisciplined Mussulmans easily overcame the Grand Vizier's army, partly, it must be acknowledged, by the defection of the Albanians, whohad previously deserted the cause of Scodra Pacha. Had they now pushedon, their independence would have been established; but, unfortunately, what the Grand Vizier could not effect by force of arms he brought aboutby guile. With great tact and cunning he sent emissaries to Hussein, demanding to know the terms which they required. These were thepermission to remain in statu quo, with the appointment of Hussein asVizier. These conditions he was fain to grant, and so far worked uponthe Bosnians by private and official stratagem, that they commencedtheir homeward march, leaving Scodra Pacha to his fate. Shortlyafterwards he was compelled to surrender. Individually his life wasspared, but his partisans did not meet with the same clemency. For thetruth of what I am about to relate I am unable to vouch, but can onlygive it as it is recorded by the chroniclers of the events of thosetimes. Projectile machines are said to have been erected, and theprisoners, being placed upon them, were flung against a wooden frameworkstudded with great iron hooks, and wherever the body of the unfortunatevictim was caught by them, there it hung until he perished by theterrible, torturing, and protracted death. 

The destruction of Scodra's power was a great feather in the cap of theGrand Vizier, who now lost no time in undermining the authority ofHussein. In this he was assisted by the imprudence of the latter, whocommitted the error of admitting Ali Aga of Stolatz into his confidence, a man who had always adhered to the Sultan, and was distrustedaccordingly by his compatriots. Universal as was the partisan warfarein Bosnia and Herzegovina, there was no chieftain who had supported thebrunt of so many onslaughts as Ali Aga. His castle at Stolatz, althoughincapable of resisting the weapons employed in scientific warfare, wasimpregnable in those times, and against such an enemy. 

In addition to the distrust engendered by Hussein's intimacy with All, the absence of any ratification by the Porte of the recent treaty ofpeace tended to produce discord in the province. Taking advantage ofthis, the Grand Vizier nominated a new Pacha, Kara Mahmoud, a creaturedevoted to government interest. He invaded the country with 30, 000 men, and finally succeeded, in spite of a gallant resistance, in takingSerayevo, the capital. The perseverance which he employed in a sinkingcause did credit to Hussein, who was nobly supported by the faithful andbrave Al Pacha Vidaitch, who had no less than eight horses killed underhim in the battle which took place before the walls of Serayevo. 

Kara Mahmoud established himself there, and deposed in succession allthe Kapetans except Ali Aga of Stolatz, who had made his appearance at acritical moment of the battle before Serayevo, and thus turned thetables against his former friend, Hussein Pacha. 

Having thus far succeeded in his undertaking, Redschid Pacha turned hisattention to Montenegro, which had been the source of chronicheartburnings since 1804. The nature of the country, and the want oforganisation in the Turkish forces, however, once more enabled themountaineers successfully to repel the invaders. A more importantexpedition against them was in contemplation, when the Egyptian warbroke out, and the services of the Grand Vizier and his army wererequired to combat their former ally, Ibrahim Pacha. Previous toquitting the country, the Grand Vizier promulgated an amnesty to allthose refugees who had fled into Austria, except Hussein Kapetan, AliVidaitch, and Kruppa Kapetan. A firman was subsequently given, permitting even these to return to Turkey, although interdicting theirresidence in Bosnia. On arriving at Constantinople they received theirpardon, and Ali Vidaitch returned to Bosnia; Hussein's fate is moreuncertain. From that time until 1849 order prevailed in Bosnia, although, as subsequent events proved, a rebellious spirit still existedamongst the more important chieftains, with whom personal aggrandisementtook precedence of the interests of the Sultan, their sovereign. 

[Footnote M: Krasinski. ]

CHAPTER IX. 

 Hussein Pacha--Tahir Pacha--Polish and Hungarian Rebellions--Extends to Southern Slaves--Congress convened--Montenegrins overrun Herzegovina--Arrival of Omer Pacha--Elements of Discord--Rising in Bulgaria put down by Spahis--Refugees--Ali Rizvan Begovitch--Fall of Mostar, and Capture of Ali--His suspicious Death--Cavass Bashee--Anecdote of Lame Christian--Omer Pacha invades Montenegro--Successes--Austria interferes--Mission of General Leiningen--Battle of Grahovo--Change of Frontier--Faults of new Boundary. 

And so time wore on, and Bosnia enjoyed a kind of fitful repose. Thereand in Herzegovina the feudal system had lost much of its primevalvigour, although a barbarous independence still prevailed, moreespecially in the latter province, where Ali Aga of Stolatz showedsymptoms of forsaking the _treacherous fidelity_ which had secured forhim his high position. Whatever feeling of disaffection might have beencherished, either in Bulgaria or Bosnia, was effectually checked: in theformer by the judicious tyranny of Hussein, Vizier of Widdin, in thelatter by the iron yoke of Tahir Pacha, who fully entered into theSultan's projects for reform. 

The social condition of these two provinces rendered necessary a certainvariety in the policy of their rulers. Thus, while Hussein may beregarded as the apostle of political Islamism in Europe, Tahirendeavoured to introduce the European element. He consequentlyidentified himself, to a dangerous extent, with the Christianpopulation, abolishing forced labour, equalising the taxes, andeffecting other reforms calculated to upset the old, and establish the_Nisame Jedid_, or new order of things. 

At this juncture the flames of revolutionary war broke forth in Polandand Hungary. The proximity of these countries, and the affinity of theirSlavonic origin, could not fail to disseminate the same spirit on thesouthern bank of the Save. A wild enthusiasm took possession of bothSerbs[N] and Bulgares, before which the aged and decrepid Viziers feltthemselves powerless. 

If it be difficult to realise the position of the Sultan, who thus foundhimself at variance with his Christian subjects in Bulgaria, and hisBosnian Spahis, the attitude assumed by these factions is equallyincomprehensible. Blinded by one insane desire to throw off theirallegiance to the Sultan, they espoused the Russo-Austrian cause, demanding their annexation to some Slave country. Thus, by a cleverstroke of policy, Austria contrived to secure to herself the cooperationof both the Hungarian and Serb Slaves. And here we may note a curiouscoincidence, which still farther complicated matters. Whatever may havebeen their prejudices against the Slavonic Christians, the BosnianSpahis found it expedient to demand the assistance, not only of theServians, but of the Montenegrins, the most implacable of foes to theTurkish rule. These at first appeared likely to respond to the summons. 

So numerically strong, and so complete, were the preparations for warmade by the Bosnians, that, when they took the field under Ali Kieditch, Tahir found it impossible to stem the torrent of rebellion. Never didthe prospects of the Porte wear so gloomy an aspect, for there wereranged against it all classes of Slaves and Bulgares, irrespective ofreligion or denomination. As a last resource government convened aCongress, comprising representatives of all classes of subject Slaves. As might have been supposed, little unanimity prevailed in theircounsels, and no tangible advantages were thereby attained. And now acombination of unforeseen circumstances conspired to rescue the Portefrom the pressing danger which threatened it. The neutrality preservedby Servia, or rather its Prince, Alexander Guirgievitch, infected notonly the Bulgarian Christians, but even the Montenegrins themselves, whoactually overran Herzegovina and a portion of the Bosnian frontierduring the absence of the Mussulman Spahis of those districts. Undauntedhowever, by these mishaps, the members of the Congress returned totheir homes; and, although powerless to act in concert, succeeded sowell in stirring up a feeling of animosity against the government, thatthe spring of 1850 found the malcontents in a better position than everfor the renewal of the war. But rebellion had now reached itsculminating point, and the sudden appearance of Omer Pacha, who threwhimself with impetuous daring into the heart of Bosnia, gave a verydifferent colouring to events. To form a just estimate of thedifficulties which he had to overcome, ere order could be re-establishedin this confused chaos, it is necessary briefly to recapitulate thevarious conflicting elements, revolutionary and otherwise, which hadbeen brought into play, the aim and inevitable result of which must havebeen the utter destruction of this unhappy empire. 

There are those who profess to believe that Russia has no malevolentdesigns upon Turkey, and who bring forward many plausible reasons insupport of their opinion; but this number has very materially diminishedsince the disclosures which preceded the late Russian war. The characterof the Turkish people, their religion, and their social and politicalinstitutions, may all have tended to produce the calamitous state ofaffairs. Yet when we probe the matter to the bottom, there we find theroot of all evil--Russian policy and imperial ambition. It is not to saythat this monarch or that was desirous of annexing by conquest, andholding by force of arms, a gigantic empire. Such a thought weremadness. Far more subtle is the scheme which was, and is, inherent inevery Russian ruler. It has been, and still is, their ownaggrandisement, direct or indirect, based upon the ruins of Turkey. Ablyand laboriously have they worked to effect that which still seems asdistant as ever. No sooner were the bloody days of 1828-9 past, thanthey applied themselves afresh to the work of disorganisation, and inthis appeared to succeed too well. They had launched the Slave againstthe Turk, and then the Christian Slave against the Mussulman Slave, whilst at the same time the Asiatic Turk--the Turk _pur sang_--wasstruggling throughout Anatolia against the reformed and European Turk. It now remained to find a pretext to justify her in effecting an armedintervention, that cloak for so much that is arbitrary and aggressive. This was soon found in an insignificant rising of the Bulgarians, brought on by her roubles lavishly dispensed by old Milosch Obrenovitch, the ejected Servian Prince, and the sympathy felt for Kossuth andDembinski, who had taken refuge at Widdin. This rising, however, whichwas at first directed only against the Turkish Spahis or landowners, soon acquired more important dimensions, and on January 8, 1850, thethree Nahias of Widdin, Belgradchitch, and Verkovats, were under arms. Having failed in an attack upon the fortress of Belgradchitch, theyretired and entrenched themselves at different spots in the adjacentcountry. Better armed and provisioned, and of greater physical courage, the Spahis soon succeeded in overcoming these disorganised masses, andbloody was the vengeance which they took. 

'Victors in every encounter, ' says Cyprien Robert, 'the Mussulman Spahisbegan to visit on horseback the villages, more than two hundred innumber, which had taken part in the insurrection. The devastation thatensued was worthy of the most barbarous time. Neither age nor sex wasspared. All the young were carried off to the vulture-nests of theSpahis of the Balkan. In vain did Redschid Pacha enjoin milder measures;neither he nor the Sultan could check these bloodthirsty tigers. Thereneeded to that end the unexpected arrival of Omer Pacha at Nish. He fellamong them like a thunderbolt, and all was silence. The Bulgariansceased to flee, the Spahis to pursue, and, what was more, the Russianarmy of Wallachia halted at the moment it was about to cross the Danube. That terrible Omer, the queller of so many revolts, had at Bucharest anopportunity of making his qualities felt by the Russian Generals, andthey were completely disconcerted by his sudden arrival at Nish, whenthey thought he was hemmed in by the insurgent Serba in the gorges ofBosnia, without the means of making his way through them. The Russiantroops paused, awaiting fresh orders from St. Petersburg: orders came, and the whole scheme was quashed. Cleverly as the Russian plot had beenlaid, it was completely baffled by the rapidity of Omer Pacha'smovement. ' Once again order was re-established. Serayevo was again madethe seat of the provincial government, and numerous reforms were broughtinto force, all of which tended to ameliorate the condition of theChristian population. 

Such of the chieftains as refused to make their submission were pursuedwithout mercy, until the province became too hot to hold them. A few, too proud or too obstinate to yield, took refuge in the Herzegovina, where Ali Rizvan Begovitch, then an old man, opened his fortresses tothem. But all resistance was vain before the iron will and temperatejudgement of Omer. Mostar fell, and old Ali was made a prisoner and sentin chains to Serayevo. That place he never reached, for he was shot, accidentally it is alleged, by a Turkish soldier while on his waythither. The circumstances of his death will hardly bear an enquiry, anddo not reflect much credit on the successful Omer, to whom the blame, aswell as the glory he acquired in all else, must attach. It is true thatthe old tyrant fully deserved his fate, since even to this day theenormities which he committed are well remembered. The old tower on theNarenta at Mostar used to look grim with the distorted heads of theprisoners whom he had captured on the Montenegrin frontier. The habit ofdecapitating the dead was revolting enough, but this aged sinner was notsatisfied with that: he used to drive sharp wooden poles through theirliving bodies, and then leave them to die a lingering and agonisingdeath. Some are said to have survived their impalement as much asforty-eight hours. The example set by the Pacha was readily followed bythose about him. Numerous are the tales of murder done by his followers, one of whom vied with his master in deeds of murder and ferocity. Thisman, the Cavass Bashee, lived entirely by plunder and rapine. A spot waspointed out to me in the valley of the Drechnitza where a Christian waskilled by him while stooping down to drink. I also heard an amusinganecdote regarding him, when he was completely outwitted by a poor lameChristian. The latter was riding through a river, where the stream wassomewhat rapid. On the river's bank he was overtaken by the CavassBashee, who allowed him to reach the middle of the stream, when heordered him to dismount, threatening to shoot him if he did not comply. In vain he pleaded his lameness; the ruffian was obdurate. Nothingremained but to obey. This he did, and with difficulty reached theopposite bank. The Mussulman followed, but scarcely had he reached thedeep water when the Christian, who carried a pistol concealed, drew it, and, aiming at his persecutor, ordered him to dismount under pain ofdeath. So aghast was he at this audacious effrontery, that he not onlyobeyed, but departed without farther comment, leaving the Christianmaster of the field. Whether he took warning from Ali Pacha's fate isunknown, but he certainly died in the odour of sanctity, afterperforming a pilgrimage to Mecca. 

Having thus established the power of the Sultan in both provinces, aswell as in Bulgaria, Omer Pacha turned his attention to theMontenegrins, whose incursions into the Herzegovina were becomingfrequent and audacious. Penetrating the country from two convergingpoints, he defeated the mountaineers on every occasion, who found thatthey had a very different foe to contend with from those to whom theyhad been accustomed. Already had he advanced close upon Cettigne, thecapital, when the Austrian government interfered. Operations weresuspended, and General Leiningen proceeded to Constantinople, where hedemanded the total withdrawal of the Turkish forces. This was accededto, and Turkey thus lost the hold which it had acquired upon the lawlessMontenegrins. The idea of Ottoman decay acquired daily fresh strength, and a maudlin sentimentality was excited in behalf of these Christiansavages. Taking advantage of this, they made constant forays across theborder, stirring up by their example such of the borderers as weredisposed to rise, and using force to compel those who would havepreferred a quiet existence under the Turkish rule. 

Such was the position of affairs when the battle of Grahovo took placeon May 13, 1858. Although the affair has been grossly exaggerated, andthe blame wrongfully imputed to Hussein Pacha, the military Commander ofthe Ottoman forces, it cannot be gain-said that the Turkish power wasmuch weakened by the event, and the arrogance of the Christiansproportionately increased, while the change of frontier to which itconduced tended rather to aggravate than diminish the evil. The newboundary line was defined by an European mixed commission, which decidedon increasing Montenegro by the annexation of territory on the westernfrontier, including Grahovo, which they had held since Hussein Pacha'sdisaster. Whether the new frontier is calculated to promote a pacificsettlement of the question admits of debate, as the province ispenetrated almost to the centre by Turkish territory on either side:this, if it give the latter the advantage in a military point of view, exposes the occupants of the country, flanked by the Montenegrinmountains, to constant visits from their unwelcome neighbours, who dashdown, kill, burn, and carry off all that they can lay hands on, andretreat to their fastnesses before the arrival of succour. 

[Footnote N: People occupying Bosnia, Servia, Herzegovina, andMontenegro. ]

CHAPTER X. 

 Insurrection of Villagers--Attack Krustach--Three Villages burnt--Christian Version--Account given by Dervisch Pacha--Deputation headed by Pop Boydan--Repeated Outrages by Rebels--Ali Pacha of Scutari--His want of Ability--Greek Chapels sacked--Growth of Rebellion--Omer Pacha restored to Favour--Despatched to the Herzegovina--Proclamation--Difficulties to be encountered--Proposed Interview between Omer Pacha and Prince of Montenegro--Evaded by the Prince--Omer Pacha returns to Mostar--Preparations for Campaign. 

We now arrive at that period when rebellion actually broke out among theChristians of the Herzegovina, and when things, in short, assumed theaspect which they now wear. 

Before entering upon any account of the various risings which haveoccurred, I would remark that much blame attaches itself to the Porte, not only because of long years of misgovernment, but also on account ofthe supineness shown by its officials, who, in the presence of the mostpositive proofs to the contrary, treated the idea of a rising withsupercilious disregard. Frequently whole villages came in to declarethat they should be compelled to rise, unless they received protectionand support. This was of course promised liberally, but the promiseswere never redeemed, and so they were driven to rebellion against theirwill, as a means of safety from the fanatical fury of their lawlessco-religionists. 

After two years of indecisive skirmishing, in which the Turks, alwaysexposed in small parties, generally fared the worst, the Ottomangovernment appeared to awake to the necessity for pursuing moreenergetic measures. This resolution was hastened by the revolt of thevillagers of Yassenik, Lipneh, Garevo, Kazantzi, Doulatchi, Vralkovitch, Golia, Krustach, Beronschitzi, Yenevitza, Danitzi, and others in theneighbourhood of Gasko, who joined bands of Uskoks, with whom and theMontenegrins they attacked the blockhouse of Krustach. As a punishment, three of these were burnt by the Turkish troops. The version of theaffair given by the opposing parties varies considerably, as may besupposed. The Christians affirm that, after repeated acts of aggressionon the part of the Bashi Bazouks, they took refuge in the mountains, butreturned thence on being promised protection. That they were one dayastonished by perceiving the heights covered with soldiers, who enteredand sacked the village of Beronschitzi. No blood was shed, but the sixsons of one Simon Gregorovitch were taken before Ali Pacha, who orderedthem to instant execution. The seventh son is reported to have beentaken to Metokhia, where, after being tortured, he was executed. Thepeople escaped from Yassenik and Yenevitza, but in the former two womenare said to have been killed and thrown into the flames of the burninghouses. 

The whole of these villagers affirm that their only crime consisted inhaving united with other villagers in posting videttes, to give warningof the approach of Bashi Bazouks and Uskoks. 

This somewhat improbable story is denied by Dervisch Pacha, who givesthe following account of the matter:--The occupants of twenty-onedifferent villages revolted in the spring of 1859, and interrupted thecommunications between Gasko and Niksich and Grasko and Mostar. Theythen attacked those villages occupied by Mussulmans in the plain ofGasko, and made raids into the district of Stolatz, from which theycarried off 6, 000 head of cattle, the property of the Roman Catholics ofthat district. They further compelled many Christians to join in therevolt, who would otherwise have remained quiet. Dervisch Pachatherefore sent Ali Riza Pacha, a General of Brigade, to restore order. He, after taking and garrisoning Krustach, advised the rebels to senddeputies, to show the nature of the grievances of which they complained. These were sent accordingly, headed by one Pop Boydan, a priest, and aleading mover of the insurrection; but in place of lodging anycomplaints, the delegates appeared rather in the light of suppliantsdemanding pardon and favour. Meanwhile the villagers returned, but notto live peaceably--merely with the view of getting in their crops. 

While the deputation, however, was at Nevresign, the villages of Lipneh, Samabor, Yassenik, Yenevitza, and Beronschitzi revolted again, and cutoff the communications between Gasko, Krustach, and Niksich. They alsoposted guards along a line of frontier, which they said that no Turkshould pass. When called to account by Dervisch Pacha for this breach offaith, the deputies replied that the Christians acted through fear, which feeling was taken advantage of by a few evil-disposed persons fortheir own ends. They, however, undertook to pacify them, and wrote aletter professedly with that object, but without effect. The disorderincreased, and numerous outrages were committed. Seven soldiers weremurdered whilst cutting wood about four miles from Metokhia; Ali Pacha'saide-de-camp and five soldiers were cut to pieces between

Niksich and Krustach, and seven other Mussulmans were killed. Still theTurks hesitated to act with severity. They appealed again to thedeputies, who wrote another letter, which, as the bearers of itaffirmed, only enraged the rebels, who tore it, and trod it under foot. But this affords little proof of the intensity of their feelings, as ithas since transpired that an arrangement had been made by the deputiesthat all letters written voluntarily and in sincerity should bear aprivate mark; and the letter in question was not so distinguished. Uponthe discovery of their treachery the deputies were imprisoned, andenergetic measures at once resolved upon. To give these effect, AliPacha advanced at the head of a small force, and summoned the rebels tosurrender. They replied by firing on the advanced guard. The threevillages were then taken, and five men and two women killed, while a fewprisoners were made. These last were released, but one died in prison. Such is the story told of the affair by Dervisch Pacha. 

It does not appear that Ali Pacha acquired any great credit by hismethod of conducting the operations. Quitting a strong position in theafternoon, he arrived at the villages to be attacked after nightfall. Having fired them, he was compelled to make a precipitate retreat, whichmight have been most disastrous, had he been opposed to an enterprisingenemy. 

With reference to the discrepancy manifested in the two accounts, we mayfeel assured that both are highly coloured. But the deception resortedto by the rebels, and the simple explanation given by the Turkishofficials, would tend to impart to their story the greater appearance oftruth. Had the Turks, moreover, wished to avenge the deaths of theirsoldiers, or to vent their hatred of the Christians, they would havemaltreated the people of the first villages at which they arrived, inplace of marching seven miles through a difficult country to the bordersof a district which had for two years defied their efforts at reduction. 

The implication of the villagers in the numerous murders which hadoccurred was proved by the discovery of some of the Turkish bayonets atBeronschitzi, while they actually made an offer to restore the propertyof the murdered aide-de-camp, provided a reward was paid for them. Theyeven sent a list of the effects to Ali Pacha, with the sum which theydemanded for the restoration of each article. 

I venture to give these details even at the risk of incurring the chargeof too great prolixity, as hitherto a one-sided account only has beengiven to the world. Every channel of information, whether it be thetelegraph from Ragusa or the Slavonic press, does its best to misleadthe general public, by exciting sympathy for the Christians, as unjustas it is undeserved. Even in the affair in question much stir was madeby the Slavish newspapers about the death of seven Christians, while, asDervisch Pacha very fairly complained, no notice was taken of the murderof thirty-seven Mussulmans during the same period. 

Another event, which afforded a handle for the ill-wishers of Turkey, was the pillage of the four Greek chapels of Samabor, Dobrolie, Kazantzi, and Grachantzi. This occurred in July 1859, and the case wasinvestigated by the Russian Consul at Mostar, who imputed the act toTurkish soldiers, producing in evidence the fact of a sergeant having inhis possession a kind of church vestment. The sergeant, however, did notattempt to conceal the vestment, and accounted for his possession of itin a manner which was deemed satisfactory by the British and otherConsuls. 

It was more probably done by Uskoks, who gutted a chapel near Nevresigna few years before, or by the rebels themselves, at the instigation ofothers, for the purpose of bringing odium upon the Turks in the eyes ofEurope. 

By these and other no less unworthy means was the agitation fosteredthroughout the province, until the whole frontier became denuded ofMussulman inhabitants, who were compelled to take shelter in Klobuk, Niksich, and other places capable of some sort of defence. 

By the spring of 1861 affairs had assumed so serious an aspect, thateven the Porte could not but awake to the danger which threatened thatportion of the empire, and to the necessity for immediate and strenuousmeasures. This danger lay not so much in the aggressive power of therebels themselves, as in the ulterior results which it was calculated toproduce. 

It required little foresight to understand that the movement wasdestined to be the germ of a general insurrection of the SlavonicChristians of Turkey, which would lead to the partial or entiredismemberment of her European provinces. 

In this dilemma the Sultan's government bethought them of appealing tothe only man in the empire who was capable of grappling with thedifficulty. Omer Pacha was taken once more into favour, and wasdespatched to the scene of discord. A Slave by birth, but tied to theinterests of his imperial master by the devotion of a lifetime, no morefitting choice could have been made. With alacrity he proceeded on hismission--a mission which required both courage and address, energy andendurance. 

He commenced his task by issuing the following proclamation, in which hecalled upon all to return to their allegiance, in full assurance that itwas the intention of the Sultan to carry out the reforms which had beenguaranteed by the Hatti Humayoun of 1855. 

 'What this proclamation is I let you all know. 

 'His Majesty the Sultan has appointed me the chief of his armies in the Roumelian provinces, and has sent me here to carry out in this mission all the just privileges, which have not hitherto been fulfilled. In obedience to the commands of the Sultan, I have come here to show to you how kind and good are the intentions of our sovereign to his subjects, and to announce without distinction to Mussulmans, Greeks, and Catholics together, the following decrees:--

 '1st. Every village has the power to name one or two chiefs as representatives, whom I will acknowledge. 

 '2nd. Every district has the power to name one or two representatives whomsoever the people of the district may choose. 

 '3rd. The Christians shall have full religious liberties, and shall be permitted to build churches and place bells therein, like all the rest of the subjects in the empire. 

 '4th. The Zaptiehs (police) shall not be permitted to locate themselves in your houses, but an appointed place shall be set apart for them in every village. 

 '5th. The arrangement which has been made at Constantinople touching landowners and the agriculturists, and to which both parties have assented, shall immediately be put into execution. 

 '6th. The taxes shall be collected by your own chiefs, and consigned by them to the officers sent by our Sultan to receive them. 

 '7th. I will further recommend to the Greek Patriarch at Constantinople that a Bishop of your own nation should be nominated, who knows your language and customs. 

 '8th. I will take such measures as shall secure you the right of purchasing landed property. 

 'When this proclamation shall have been promulgated to you, and you should still have some farther favour to ask at my hands, you may do so in writing, or by word of mouth. All that is possible for your welfare I will endeavour to fulfill. 

 'Furthermore, it is your bounden duty to submit yourselves to your sovereign, and to show humility to him. 

'From the Divan Marshal &c. &c. &c. &c. --at Mostar. 

 'When you shall have heard what I have promised, see that everyone know of it, and what is necessary to execute let me know, and it shall be fulfilled. '

This proclamation, was disseminated in all the Nahias (districts), towns, and villages, and in many instances produced a favourable result. But it could not be expected that these assurances, even though theyshould have reached them, could have made much impression on a set oflawless brigands, who loved plunder for plunder's sake, and who weresupported both morally and practically by the agents of civilisedEuropean powers. 

Having allowed a sufficient time to elapse for all to make theirsubmission, it now remained to employ force where it was requisite. Butthe difficulties which Omer Pacha had to encounter were prodigious. Anunprecedented drought rendered an unusually sterile country moreincapable than ever of sustaining life, while the period whichgenerally elapses between the autumn rains and the killing frosts ofwinter, renders the time available for military operations short anduncertain. Add to this, the total want of provisions, stores, and othernecessaries, which his predecessors had neglected to procure, and anempty treasury, and we may not be surprised that his mission is as yetuncompleted. But another and still greater difficulty presented itselfto him. This related to the attitude which he should assume towardsMontenegro. 

The shortest and most efficient line to pursue, in order to arrive atthe root of the evil, would have been to have invaded and subjugatedthat province. But even had he felt confident of his power to effect it, he remembered too well the lesson of former years, when his successfuladvance was checked by political interference. There was little reasonto suppose that the same power, which then intervened, would allow himgreater latitude in the present instance. The idea, therefore, wasdiscarded, and endeavours were made to bring about a pacificunderstanding, which should result in the re-establishment of order. Ameeting between Omar Pacha and the Prince of Montenegro was consequentlyagreed upon at a point close to the Lake of Scutari. Omer Pacha, accompanied by the European commission, travelled to the spot. Allappeared to be going well. Though nothing definite was everpromulgated, there is good reason to believe that the TurkishPlenipotentiary would have offered the most advantageous terms to thePrince, including an accession of territory to the NW. And W. , and thepossession of Spizza, a seaport, had the meeting taken place. But at thelast moment the Prince evaded his share of the arrangement, on theshallow excuse that his people would not permit him to cross his ownfrontier. He well knew that the Sultan's representative would not demeanhimself by pandering to the caprices of one by rights a subject, andthat the only way in which Omer Pacha would ever pass into Montenegrowould be at the head of his soldiers. 

In vain did the European Commissioners try to change his decision. Invain they asserted the sincerity of the Sultan, and the safety withwhich he might fulfill his agreement. They could only elicit a surly, 'Faites comprendre ces gens-là. ' The indignant 'C'est assez, Monsieur, 'of the French Commissioner brought the interview to an abruptconclusion. The rejection, for such it must be deemed, of the Turkishovertures, together with the boast which escaped the Prince, that hecould pacify the frontier in fourteen days, are quite sufficient proofsof his implication in the disturbances, and would fully justify theTurks, were they to sweep this nest of hornets from the face of theearth. 

Unfortunately, the principle of non-intervention between a sovereign andhis subjects is a chimera, refuted as it has so signally been by thevery author of the principle. 

The Commissioners now saw that nothing more could be done save by forceof arms, and were dissolved accordingly. 

Omer Pacha returned to Mostar to continue his preparations for carryingon hostilities, not against the Montenegrins, but against the rebelliousChristians on the Turkish side of the frontier. 

CHAPTER XI. 

 Leave Mostar for the Frontier--Mammoth Tombstones--Stolatz--Castle and Town--Christian Shopkeeper--Valley of the Stolatz--Disappearance of River--Temporary Camp--My Dalmatian Servant--Turkish Army Doctors--Numerical Force of the Turks--Health of the Army--Bieliki--Decapitation of Prisoners--Christian Cruelty. 

Day dawned on September 14, 1861, on about as cheerless a prospect ascan well be imagined. A chilly drizzle, swept hither and thither bystrong gusts of wind, did not tend to enhance the beauty of thesurrounding country, while it portended rather ominously for the successof the operations, the first important step in the prosecution of whichmay be considered to have been begun upon that day. By nine o'clock, thehour fixed for our departure, the wind had fallen, and the rain began, to descend in torrents, defying all precautions in the shape of cloaksand waterproofs. So it continued until past noon, when the cloudscleared away, and the sun shone out bright and warm. 

There is little to interest the traveller in this part of theHerzegovina, unless it be the existence of clusters of old tombstones, which occur very frequently throughout the province. About one hourbefore reaching Stolatz, which was our destination, we came upon one ofthose ancient cemeteries, which is well worthy of notice from themammoth proportions of the tombstones. These are, as is usually thecase, adorned with primitive sculptures of men clad in armour, horses, and dogs, and decapitated heads; dates are seldom found, but thecharacter of the work and the frequent occurrence of the cross confirmsthe supposition that they were erected previous to the Turkish conquest. On our approach to Stolatz we were met by a deputation of the countrypeople, and by bands of children sent out to greet the arrival of himwho is regarded as the general pacificator. The anxiety displayed bythese to do homage by kissing his stirrup-iron when mounted, or the hemof his trousers, was by no means appreciated by Omer Pacha, whopossesses very Europeanised views on these subjects. The enthusiasm withwhich he was received, however, could not be mistaken, and forms animportant element in his prospects of a successful termination of theaffair. Outside the walls a battalion of regulars was drawn up, andevery here and there some detachments of irregular soldiers. 

Stolatz is charmingly situated on both banks of a small stream, whichare covered with fig and olive trees, and at the northern extremity ofthe ravine in which it is built is the old castle for which it isfamous. This was put into repair by the rebellious Ali Pacha, and wasthe last position held by him before he was taken prisoner by OmerPacha. It is simply a rectangular enclosure, with square towers atintervals in place of bastions, and would afford little security againstan army provided with artillery. In addition to the weakness of itsdefences, it is so situated as to be formidable only to the town whichlies beneath it, since it is commanded by several points on thesurrounding hills, where batteries might be safely erected at shortranges. On the towers and their connecting curtains are many old guns, some mounted, and others lying as they have probably lain for centuries. Some of these are of the time of Maria Theresa, and nearly all wereornamented with inscriptions and designs. The custom of naming guns orgiving them mottoes is very ancient and widely spread. I remember seeinga number of Sardinians grouped round a gun in Capua upon the day of itssurrender to the Garibaldian and Piedmontese forces. They appeared muchamused, and on enquiring the cause of their merriment, I found it to bethe result of their appreciation of the motto upon the gun, which ran asfollows:--'Ultima ratio regum. ' (the last argument of kings), anargument which at any rate told with little effect in the case ofFrancis II. , for the simple reason that it was introduced at the wrongmoment. Doubtless some of these relics of Eastern warfare possessed aspointed and applicable dicta as that of Capua, and had I had sufficienttime I should have scraped off the mould and rust of accumulated ages, and have copied some of the inscriptions. That they could be fired wasplaced beyond a doubt by the promiscuous medley of explosions whichgreeted us, and which I purposely abstain from calling a salute, sounlike was it to everything one has been wont to classify under thatname. 

Omer Pacha passed that night in the house of an opulent Mussulman, whileI was billeted upon the principal Christian inhabitant, a Greek[O]shopkeeper. These men, one of whom is to be found in most of theprincipal towns and large villages, may be regarded as the Parsees ofTurkey. Their shops are tolerably well supplied with Europeancommodities, and their owners are far in advance of theirfellow-townsmen in cleanliness and civilisation. Yet, in spite of this, some of the modes in which they delight to honour even the passingstranger are far from acceptable. Among the least objectionable of theseis the encouragement of their children to seize and slobber over hishands, the only manner of avoiding which is to keep them thrust deeplyinto his pockets--an odious custom elsewhere, but here indispensable. Before bidding a last farewell to the house of my entertainer, I mustpay a grateful tribute to its comfort and cleanliness. In vain Ipressed him to accept some return for his hospitality, and it was atlength only in the form of a present to one of the aforesaid childrenthat I could induce this kind-hearted family to take any memento oftheir grateful guest. 

On leaving Stolatz, our route lay in a SE. Direction along thebridle-path upon the right bank of the river. During the first twohours, the rocks on our left were quite bare and devoid of all signs ofvegetation. Afterwards they assumed a far less barren appearance, beingcovered with good strong brushwood, which grows down close to thewater's edge. The water is itself clear and shallow, and at one pointsuddenly disappears--an instance of that phenomenon so common in thesecountries, to which allusion has already been made. Above the point ofdisappearance, the valley has all the aspect of the dry bed of a river, with its sloping banks and pebbly bottom. 

Our force, which on leaving Mostar had consisted only of a small body ofcavalry for escort purposes, and some hundreds of irregulars, wasaugmented at Stolatz by half a battalion of regular infantry. That thepicturesque effect produced by these Bashi Bazouks (conspicuous amongwhom were the Albanian levies) was heightened by the addition of theregulars, in their soiled garments and woollen great coats, I cannotpretend to say; yet let no one endeavour to depreciate the Turkishinfantry who has not seen them plodding gallantly on beneath a broilingsun, and in a country which, by its stony roughness, would tax theenergies of the stoutest Highlander. 

Those first marches, before we joined the main army, were for us, whowere mounted, pleasant enough. Taking advantage of any clump of treeswhich we might encounter--and these were not very numerous--the haltwould sound, and in an incredibly short space of time coffee and pipeswould be served to the General, his Secretary, and myself, the staffforming themselves into a group a few paces distant. 

During these halts children or curious adults would be seen peeping frombehind the trees, bent on catching a glimpse of the Serdar Ekrem. Inoticed that he never missed an opportunity of conversing with thecountry people, who would tremblingly obey his summons to come andreceive 'Bakshish, ' until reassured by his kind tone and gentle manner. 

In thus speaking of Omer Pacha's moral qualities let me not be mistaken:I do not wish to infer that he possesses a very refined mind, still lessthat he is gifted with those elements which go to form thephilanthropist; but that which he does possess is much good nature, along-headed shrewdness, which shows him the policy of toleration, and ageneral disposition to support the weak against the strong. Thus, if hehas been accused of squeezing the faithful subjects of His ImperialMajesty the Sultan, I venture to say that these attentions on his parthave been devoted entirely to those whom he knows to have amassed moneyby grinding extortion, and thus he pays them off in their own coin. 

On the night of the 15th we halted in a small encampment about fivehours beyond Stolatz, where tents were already pitched for ourreception. Here one of those sights met our view so characteristic ofthe country, and so unlike anything one is accustomed to see in regulararmies. A certain amount of hay and barley had been collected, and, having been warned to do so by one of the staff, I ordered my servant topush on ahead, that he might make sure of a portion of the spoil. On myarrival I went down to watch operations, and vastly amusing it was tosee the scuffle which was going on--black servants, privates ofdragoons, and staff officers all helping themselves in a manner thatwould have wrung the heart of the most generous forage contractor orcommissariat officer. Here I discovered the sort of stuff of which myservant, a Dalmatian, was made. Some one, it appears, had told him, withwhat truth I know not, that a party of Greek Christians had lately madean incursion into this very camp, killing several Turks. This, and thereports of a few muskets, so completely unmanned him, that he stoutlydeclared his intention of remaining awake during the night; and it wasonly by allowing him to lie in the tent by my side that I could inducehim to try and sleep. The abject cowardice of this youth on subsequentoccasions gave me but a poor impression of the modern Dalmatian--an ideawhich was confirmed by the conduct of his successor, who was, ifpossible, a more pitiable poltroon than Michaele. That the position of aservant whose master was without bed or coverlet was not particularlyenviable, I am ready to admit, and many a time did he come to complainof incipient starvation; but at the moment it was difficult to makeallowance for these little inconveniences, which were common to us all. 

We were now approaching Bieliki, where a considerable body of troops wasmassed under Dervisch Pacha, a General of Division. The character of thecountry through which we passed continued the same--stony and rough, varied only by a little low wood. 

The last march was doubly as long as its precursors, and it was late inthe evening before we reached the camp. Excepting several detachments ofirregulars posted at intervals, the country presented a most desertedappearance; and, from accounts which I have since heard, I cannot helpfancying that the cause and effect were very closely allied, or, inother words, that the presence of the irregulars accounted for theabsence of the general population. The semi-feudal spirit, which was ingreat measure extinguished elsewhere with the destruction of theJanissaries, is still rife in this portion of the empire; and it seemsto me that more real danger is to be apprehended by the Porte from thisindependent spirit in the Mussulman population than from thebloodthirsty hatred of the Christians. 

About four hours from Bieliki we were met by Dervisch Pacha. Here, again, we found more Bashi Bazouks, both horse and foot, as well as abattalion of chasseurs of the army of Constantinople. On arriving incamp, I was told off to share the tent of a Colonel-Doctor, by name RaliBey, who received me most hospitably. He is a young Greek, who hasserved about eight years, having entered as a Major-Doctor. (Be nothorrified, O Surgeon-Major, at so unheard-of a proceeding! Doubtlessyour privileges are far greater than his, save that you have the Majoras an appendage in place of a prefix. ) The aforesaid Rali Bey was farthe best specimen of a Turkish military doctor whom I ever met. As arule, they are not an attractive set. Almost invariablyConstantinopolitans, they jabber execrable French fluently enough, andaffect European manners in a way which is truly disgusting: add to thisa natural disregard of cleanliness, and an obtrusive familiarity, andnothing more is wanted to complete the picture. Of their professionalcapacity I am unable to speak, never, I am thankful to say, having beencompelled to intrust my constitution to their hands; but, judging fromthe fact that, on leaving college, they dispense with books, I feltinclined to attribute the singularly small amount of sickness in campmore to fortuitous circumstances than to the _ars medendi_, as practisedby these ingenuous young men. 

The sanitary state of the army at that time contrasted very favourablywith its condition some two months later in the year. At the firstperiod to which I allude there were only seventy men actually inhospital, the whole force at Bieliki amounting to 8, 047 regulars and2, 900 Bashi Bazouks. Of the twelve battalions of regular infantry whichcomposed the force five were armed with rifles, and were termedchasseurs in consequence. At the same time, it is fair to add thatspecial attention has been paid to this arm, and the naturally keen eyeof the Turkish soldiers renders their education a matter of comparativefacility. 

The night which followed our arrival at Bieliki was, I think, the mostsleepless I have ever experienced. So thoroughly tired was I, that thedeafening crashes of thunder, the forked lightning, and the deluge ofrain, which poured in torrents through the tent, might have passedunheeded, but for the mass of minute life, which defied sleep. Withearly dawn I wandered off, too glad to escape from my tormentors, andwent through the hospitals, surgery, and other buildings connected withthe permanent encampment. The irregular lines of tents gave apicturesque appearance to the camp, which was heightened by theconfiguration of the surrounding hills. Far off to the SE. Rise therugged mountains of Montenegro, at the foot of which lies the plain ofGrahovo, a spot fraught with disastrous reminiscences to the Turks. Important as that affair was, since Grahovo was ceded to theMontenegrins in consequence, its details have been grossly exaggerated. It is currently accepted that 7, 000 Turks were cut to pieces by 4, 500mountaineers, the real truth being that the latter were probably nearlyas numerous as their opponents. The Turkish force consisted of twoentire battalions and a portion of a third, and, from the impracticablenature of the country, it would have been strange had the result beenotherwise than it was. Hemmed in and mowed down from all sides by anunseen foe, the Turkish soldiers lost all self-reliance, it is true, andthe panic which ensued must have tended considerably to increase themagnitude of their loss. In justice to Hussein Pacha, the TurkishGeneral, it should be known that the operations which placed his army inthis false position were not of his planning, but were carried out indeference to the wishes of the Civil Governor, and against his advice. From the above remarks I would not have it supposed that I am desirousof detracting from the well-merited praise to which the Montenegrins areentitled for their long and successful resistance to the Turkish arms. Their gloriously stalwart frames, and their independent spirit, both ofwhich they inherit with their mountain air, entitle them to admirationand esteem; but an undue appreciation of these should not be allowed towarp the judgement or prejudice the mind. Some there are who invest themwith almost supernaturally noble qualities, while they attribute everyconceivable enormity to their enemies the Turks. Each of these views isincorrect. The Osmanlis, whether it be from a consciousness of their owndecrepitude, or some other cause, appear to have lost the spirit ofcruelty which characterised their more successful days; and it is amatter of fact that the atrocities committed by their Christianantagonists in the Greek War of Independence, during the incursion ofthe Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus in 1854, or in the present_émeute_, equal, if they do not surpass, anything which they can lay tothe charge of the Turks. Travellers are apt to form their opinions uponthe evidence of their own senses; and when such is the case, theirverdict cannot fail to be favourable to the Moslems: for things seenwith one's own eyes will always make a deeper and more lastingimpression than the most harrowing details, the scene of which is laidin times gone by. 

It may be urged that the want of power has caused this increasedhumanity; and in part it may be so, for the nature of a people can neverundergo a sudden and entire change. But I can myself vouch for thelenity which they displayed when they have had the power, and to witgreat provocation, to have acted otherwise. The incontrovertible facts, too, remain that Mussulman Turkey has been the first to relinquish theunchristian custom of decapitating prisoners, and other inhumanpractices, which the so-called Christians appear little inclined torenounce. This will, of course, meet with an indignant denial on thepart of their supporters; but it must be a strong argument which canovercome the disgust occasioned by the sight of women without ears, children without noses, and bleeding corpses of soldiers literally hewnto pieces with knives, all of which I have witnessed with my own eyes. 

In matters which do not immediately concern England, no opinion isprobably entitled to so much reliance as that of a Briton, even allowingfor a certain tendency, which he often has, to measure all people andthings by his own standard; and for this reason, that he is probablyfree from all political and religious bias, while we know that he cannotbe actuated by prejudices resulting from community of origin, whichinvalidates the testimony of the subjects of so many other Europeanstates. However narrow-minded Englishmen may be in their own affairs, they are generally capable of taking a broader and sounder view of thoseof their neighbours than any other people. I think, therefore, that itspeaks strongly in favour of the opinions which I have advanced, thatthey are shared by all those few Englishmen whose calling has broughtthem into connection with these countries, or the still smaller numberwho have gone thither for their own gratification. To the former class, more especially, I can unhesitatingly appeal, to bear me out in theheterodox assertion that the Christians are, as a mass, greater enemiesto progress than the Turks. 

[Footnote O: I. E. Of the Greek Church. ]

CHAPTER XII. 

 Tzernagora--Collusion between Montenegrins and Rebels--Turks abandon System of Forbearance--Chances of Success--Russian Influence--Private Machination--M. Hecquard--European Intervention--Luca Vukalovich--Commencement of Hostilities--Dervisch Pacha--Advance on Gasko--Baniani--Bashi Bazouks--Activity of Omer Pacha--Campaigning in Turkey--Line of March--Pass of Koryta--The Halt--National Dance--'La Donna _Amabile_'--Tchernitza--Hakki Bey--Osman Pacha--Man with Big Head--Old Tower--Elephantiasis--Gasko--Camp Life--Moslem Devotions--Character of Turkish Troops--System of Drill--Peculation--Turkish Army--Letters--Scarcity of Provisions--Return of Villagers. 

If the past history of Tzernagora or the Black Mountain is deserving ofour admiration and wonder, its future prospects afford a no less openfield for doubt and speculation. So far all has gone well with her: themanly character of her people, and their apparent invincibility, haveenlisted the sympathies of the world in her behalf, while identity ofreligion and race have procured for her the more tangible advantages ofRussian protection. 

That the last-named power is disinterested in pursuing this policy isnot for a moment to be supposed. The price she has ever demanded for herprotection has been one too willingly paid by these lawlessmountaineers, an unremitting hostility to Turks and Turkey. Forcenturies this was open and undisguised on the part both of the peopleand the Vladika, by whom, despite his religious calling, the destructionof Turks was rewarded as a distinguished national service. Such, however, is no longer the case; although their hatred is not one whitdiminished, or their depredations less frequent than of old, they maskthem under the garb of a feigned neutrality and an unreal friendship. Thus they protest, in the face of the most damning proofs to thecontrary, their innocence of all connivance with the Herzegovinianrebels. Corpses of those who have been recognised as accredited leadersthey declare to be Uskoks, proscribed brigands, whom it behoves everylover of order to hunt down and destroy. But none are deceived by theseshallow excuses, which ill corroborate the assertion which, in anunguarded moment, escaped from the young Prince, that he wouldundertake, upon the fulfillment of certain conditions, to pacify thefrontier within fourteen days. 

This tacit admission of collusion with the rebels is quite sufficient tojustify the Porte in endeavouring to overrun the province, and thustrample out rebellion in its principal stronghold. Presupposing itsability to effect this, we then arrive at the real debatable point, whether such a course would be allowed by the other powers. In the caseof England the answer can hardly be doubtful; for it would ill behove acountry, in whose Parliament all religions are tolerated, to interferein the matter, abandoning that policy of non-intervention which she hasso openly confessed and so successfully pursued, upon the narrow groundsof the inexpediency of permitting a Mussulman power to overrun aChristian province, and a province, be it remembered, which legallycomposes an integral portion of the Turkish empire. 

The candid announcement made by the Porte of its intention to abandonthe policy of forbearance towards Montenegro, which it has as yetpursued, betokens the existence of a small spark of its ancient spirit, and augurs well for its success. Should the belligerents be left tothemselves, I believe that it will succeed; but the web of politicalintrigue which has grown around the question, fostered by hereditarypolicy, imperial ambition, and private machination, render it difficultto foretell the issue. The chances which render success probable are thedeference which France has of late shown to the wishes of England, thewant of union prevalent throughout the Austrian empire, and the internalmovement in Russia, which incapacitates her from doing mischief in thispart of Europe. Yet, let us not disguise from ourselves the self-evidentfact, that the views of Russia remain unaltered, that the policy ofPeter is still maintained inviolate, and that, although the last war mayhave convinced her that actual self-aggrandisement will not betolerated, she still holds one object ever in view--the destruction ofTurkish supremacy on both banks of the Danube and the substitution ofdependent Slavism. 

Throughout European Turkey, and nowhere more than in Montenegro, has herinfluence waned since the Eastern war; yet so long as she shall possess, and so freely use, the golden key, she must and will have very greatweight. 

Of the three causes which, as I have said, tend to complicate theHerzegovinian-Montenegrin question, private machinations have recentlybeen the most successful, and consequently the most injurious to orderand the general weal. The energy of some of the foreign employés hasbeen truly astounding, while their glib tongues and manœuvring mindshave worked metamorphoses worthy of Robin or the Wizard of the North. This distortion of facts was somewhat naïvely described by a Frenchcolleague of M. Hecquard. [P]

'Montenegro, ' said the former gentleman, 'c'est une invention deMonsieur Hecquard. ' Instances of such duplicity have been frequentlybrought to light. These, while they reflect little credit on theindividual, speak badly for the good faith of the governmentrepresented, as discovery is rarely followed by punishment--frequentlyquite the reverse. 

The high-handed policy which the Porte is now pursuing is the mostlikely to be attended with beneficial results; for, as experience hasshown us, the system of concession is entirely useless, each addition totheir territory only making the Montenegrins the more grasping and moreavaricious. That a solution of the difficulty must in some way bearrived at is clear. Should Turkey fail in effecting this by the meansshe is now adopting, Europe will be called on to interfere; for whilethings exist as at present, the developement of those countries inagriculture or commerce is as impossible as in civilisation andChristianity. 

The disorganised condition of the Herzegovina, with its attendantincubus of half a million of debt, renders it certain that one of tworesults must inevitably ensue: either Turkey will be compelled tosurrender that province, and possibly Bosnia also, or she will sustain astill severer blow to her already shattered finances. Of the two evils, the latter is the least in the opinion of the Ottoman government, and itwas this consideration which induced it to determine on the prosecutionof hostilities in 1861. Several causes combined to retard thecommencement of military operations until late in the year. Theprincipal reasons were, the almost unprecedented drought which prevailedduring that year, and the deference shown by Omer Pacha to the wishesof the European Commission, then sitting at Mostar, whose members didall in their power to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion without havingrecourse to arms. In the meantime troops were being massed, and stores, provisions, and magazines provided at Gasko, Bieliki, and Trebigné. Thecountry infested by the insurgents extended from Bosnia round thefrontier as far as Suttorina, in the vicinity of which Luca Vukalovitchhad established his quarters. This man, who has acquired a certainnotoriety, was a blacksmith by trade, but, preferring a life of lawlessindolence to honest labour, betook himself to his present calling. Heappears to be quite devoid of that chivalrous courage which hasdistinguished many of his class, and consequently deserves neithersympathy when free nor mercy from his captors when taken. 

On September 3 the first move was made. Columns left Bieliki andTrebigné, which, after scouring the district surrounding Grahovo, returned without effecting any important results. A re-distribution ofthe troops then took place. Trebigné was almost denuded of regularsoldiers, its defence being intrusted to Bashi Bazouks, while the entireforce was distributed at other points of the frontier, Bieliki and Gaskoconstituting a permanent base of operations. At the former of theseDervisch Pacha was in command, a man of considerable military talent, though thoroughly unscrupulous, while another General of Division, OsmanPacha, had his head-quarters at Gasko. 

Such was the position of affairs on September 18, 1861. Upon the morningof that day, intelligence was received of such a nature as to render animmediate move advisable. An order to this effect was issued at 2P. M. , just as I had succeeded in rendering habitable a verysmart little tent, which had previously belonged to the Spanish GeneralPrim, and had been given by him to Omer Pacha after the campaign on theDanube. At 3 P. M. Six battalions paraded with eight guns, andsome sappers, the whole under the command of Ali Pacha of Scutari, aGeneral of Brigade. For some hours our course lay in a NE. Directionalong a ridge, and separated only by the intervening gorge from themountains of the Baniani, which ran parallel on our right. These wereknown to be infested with rebels, traces of whom were found by a forceof irregulars sent to attack them during the chilly hours of morning. Here I, for the first time, saw Omer Pacha throw off the air of easycarelessness habitual to him, and apply himself _con amore_ to the workbefore him. He selected the positions to be occupied by the outposts andpicquets, indicating to his staff such points as he considered mostworthy of their attention, and endeavouring, by his own exertions, toatone for the shortcomings of his subordinates. The force bivouackedthat night on the side of a hill overhanging a hollow, in which waspitched one of the small camps with which these districts are nowinterspersed. The choice of ground was certainly most injudicious, andthe General expressed his annoyance in no measured terms. 

From this time the privations endured by the troops were very great. Long marches over an almost impracticable country by day, the mostintense cold by night, without tents or extra clothing, and with littlefood, were endured with uncomplaining devotion. In some measure I couldsympathise with them, having passed all the nights since leaving Mostarwithout bed or blanket. Thus many a cold morning hour did I eke out invain search for wood to kindle a little fire; and had I to undergo theordeal again, I should certainly prefer to pass the night _à la belleétoile_, with my toes to the smouldering embers of a camp fire, and myhead well wrapped up after the manner of all Easterns. 

On the second day after leaving Bieliki, our course lay due N. Through aperfect wilderness of rocks, varied only by an occasional basin, formedby surrounding hills, and covered with a species of dwarf vegetation. The appearance of the force, as it straggled over this wavy expanse ofstone, was curious enough, and it certainly baffles all attempts atdescription; so I must ask my readers to allow their imagination topeople the _mer de glace_ with some thousands of Oriental soldiers, regular and irregular, pipe-bearers, and household servants formidablyarmed, and they will not be far from a just conception of the case. After marching for five hours over this inhospitable tract, we halted atthe mouth of a valley where the hills open out into a small plain. Thisforms the entrance to the Pass of Koryta, whence we had just emerged. Itis a spot of ill repute even amongst the barbarous inhabitants of theseregions; and more Turks have received their death-wounds from behind theboulders, which have served to screen the assassins, or from the knivesof the ever-ready Greeks in that fatal gorge, than in any other spot ofthese disordered lands. The Pass is formed by the extremities of Banyaniand Pianina, and is of much strategical importance. It was one of thefirst points subsequently occupied by Omer Pacha. Many a disaster hasbeen brought about by the incautious recklessness of those in command ofTurkish troops, and it was with some satisfaction that I saw the heightsboth in front and rear crowned by Turkish battalions, before theremainder were allowed to pile their arms, and betake themselves tosleep or any other recreation. It was impossible not to revert inimagination to the scenes of blood and strife of which Koryta has beenthe site, as contrasted with its appearance at that moment. Groups ofTurkish soldiers were amusing themselves by dancing a national dance, with as much gaiety as though they had not marched a yard, and with farmore activity than one would be disposed to give them credit forpossessing. The dance, a kind of jumping reel, was accompanied bydroning music not unlike the pipes. A little farther a regimental bandwas murdering the two or three European airs with which it wasacquainted. One of these, to which they showed a good-natured antipathyby frequently murdering, was 'La Donna è Mobile, ' or 'La Donna_Amabile_, ' as Omer took pleasure in calling it. And thus the day woreon, until, late in the evening, we arrived at Tchernitza, a little townof about 600 inhabitants. Our camp was formed on a level plot, whichlooked green and pleasant after the barren country through which we hadpassed. Just above the spot where the men bivouacked was a lofty moundsurmounted by a turret, from which an armed sentry of a regiment ofredif (or militia) kept watch over the surrounding country. While takinga bird's-eye view from this point, I heard myself accosted, to my nosmall astonishment, in very fair English by a Turkish officer. My newacquaintance proved to be one Hakki Bey, a Major of Engineers, employedon the staff of Osman Pacha. He told me that, after having passed tenyears at the Turkish Military College, he had been sent to England forfive years to complete his education. What can the world say of Turkisheducation after this stupendous example? He was an officer of muchintelligence, and soon worked himself into Omer Pacha's good graces. Onthe following morning I met Osman Pacha at breakfast in theGeneralissimo's tent. He answers fully to the latter's description ofhim, as being a man of much feeling, and very much the reverse of whathe is represented by Mr. Oliphant. That gentleman, in his narrative ofthe Trans-Caucasian campaign, calls him 'a thorough Moslem, and a haterof all Feringhees. ' Now I am at a loss to conceive on what grounds hecan base that assertion; for, excepting that he speaks no language buthis own--a very common circumstance with English gentlemen of a certainage--he is thoroughly European in his ideas and tendencies. Of hiskindness to myself under circumstances of difficulty and danger I shallever entertain the most lively recollection. 

While peering about in the single street of Tchernitza, I observed acrowd collected in one corner. The centre of attraction proved to be aman with a big head. The unfortunate creature seemed to experience verymuch the same treatment as he would have met with had he been turnedloose in the streets of London. Everybody stared, most people laughed, and some jeered at his terrible affliction. He may have numbered somefive-and-forty years, stood about five feet four inches high, with ahead of about twice the natural size. The idiotic appearance produced bythis deformity was increased by the dimensions of his tongue, whichprotruded from his mouth, and hung down at the side in the mostwoe-begone manner. The poor wretch accepted the banter of the spectatorswith that good-humoured indifference which leads one to hope that thevictims of such freaks of nature are insensible to the full weight oftheir calamity. To the SE. Of the town or village stand the ruins of anold castle, once the favourite resort of the Dukes of Herzegovina. Nought save the remnant of the walls remains to mark its importance indays gone by. 

The remainder of our march to Gasko was in the plain, and presented fewobjects to attract attention, unless it was another victim of felldisease. A poor girl, suffering from elephantiasis, was one of the onlywomen whom I had seen for many days. Her foot was swollen to anincredible size, and I have been since informed that it is not anuncommon complaint in those countries. As usual, we found the forcealready encamped at Gasko drawn up to receive us, four mountain guns oneither flank. These were mounted, and drawn by two mules. In placesinaccessible to wheeled carriages, they are carried, as in our ownservice, by two mules, viz. The gun on one, and the carriage on theother. 

The infantry presented a more creditable appearance than any I had yetseen, and the encampment generally looked clean and orderly. Camp lifeis under no circumstances a very agreeable phase of existence, and leastof all in Eastern countries, when divested of the excitement resultingfrom the probability of an attack. In other lands there is sure to besomething to attract the mind. Staff officers in gay uniforms pass andrepass in all the importance of official haste, cornets of cavalry benton performing the onerous duties of galloper, and the pompous swagger ofinfantry drum-majors, all combine to vary the scene and amuse the eye. But in Turkey this is not so. All are equally dirty and unkempt, whilethe hideous attempts at music have very far from a soothing effect. Anattentive listener may hear a single voice four times in the day callingto prayer, a custom which, under no circumstances, is ever omitted. Ofthe internal response to this appeal I am of course unable to judge, butfrom outward appearance I should imagine it to be small. The Pachas, itis true, indulge in the somewhat unintellectual amusement of twiddling achain of beads, talking on indifferent subjects the while; but I neverobserved even this small tribute of respect amongst the inferiorofficers. And thus the day wears on in dull monotony, until at sunset acrash of many voices may be heard from the centre of the camp, rising upto heaven, and calling down a blessing on their Sultan's head. 

Immediately upon his arrival at Gasko, Omer Pacha had betaken himself tothe only habitable house in the adjacent village, coming down to campwith early morning. I consequently became the guest of Osman Pacha, whotreated me with uniform kindness. It is a strange coincidence thatalmost every Turkish Pacha, whatever may have been his origin, howeverlow his moral character, possesses a dignity of deportment and a charmof manner which among Europeans is deemed an infallible test of a kindheart and high breeding. This, however, does not apply in its full senseto Osman, for a more amiable and moral old gentleman never breathed. Indeed, I much fear that the good qualities of his heart somewhateclipsed those of his head, as subsequent events will show. Many of hisremarks, however, were shrewd and pointed enough; thus, while comparingthe English with the Turkish soldier, he very candidly admitted that theformer carried off the palm in the matter of fighting, with thefollowing reservations--that the Turk is content to serve with a veryconsiderable arrear of pay, and with very little in the way of clothingor nourishment; that he is able to endure equal if not greater fatigueand hardship; and lastly, that he does not indulge in strong drinks. Allthis must be admitted by the most prejudiced arbitrator; nor is it thehighest eulogium to which the Moslem soldier is entitled. Habits oforder and obedience, which are only sustained in European armies by thestrictest discipline, form part of the national character, and thereforerender the minuter details of military economy unnecessary. That theywill ever become sufficiently familiarised with their European clothingas to present a smart appearance, is improbable; yet their parademovements are even now performed with considerable accuracy and rapidityin the loose shuffling manner in vogue amongst the French, while oftheir prowess in the field we have had ample proofs on diversoccasions--whether in the European campaign of 1828, when, despite theconfusion resulting from the recent destruction of the Janissaries, theybeat the Russians at all points; or in Asia during that and thefollowing years, where, if not so successful, they often displayed aheroism unsurpassed in history. Or, coming down to the present time, wehave but to recall the noble stand made at Kars and Silistria, which, almost without defences, they held for months against the mostdetermined efforts of Mouravieff and Paskievitch. Singularly enduring, brave, and obedient, they require only good leading to form them intoone of the most effective armies of the world. But this is precisely theone thing in which they are most strikingly deficient, and of whichthere is little hope of any permanent amelioration. 

In no department of the public administration are the baneful effects ofthat spirit of insincerity and rapacity, which is almost universal atConstantinople, more apparent than in the army. Money drawn upon theauthority of false returns, and eventually appropriated by the highestpeople of the land, affords an example of peculation and dishonestywhich is carried out through all ranks, and the result is that thegreater portion of the army has received no pay for more thansix-and-twenty months. There is reason to believe that this system ofsending in false numerical returns has been of late carried to anincredible extent. The nominal strength of the Turkish army is asfollows:--6 corps d'armées, each consisting of 6 regiments of 4battalions, each battalion numbering 1, 000 effective men, with aproportion of cavalry and artillery to each corps d'armée. 

This gives us 144, 000 regular infantry; and yet I have good authorityfor saying that, should Turkey enter upon a war to-morrow, she would doso with less than 80, 000 regular infantry. Of these 29 of the strongestbattalions were in the Herzegovina during the past autumn, and thatforce has received a slight increase during the winter months. To themerits of these troops I have already borne testimony. Against those bywhom they are officered I would now raise a protest, since they appearedto be so selected without regard to any one qualification which mayentitle them to the rank. Even were the finances of the empire restoredto a flourishing condition, and other reforms instituted, the armycannot be thoroughly effective until it is re-officered, and the newofficers duly impressed with a conviction of the just distribution ofrewards and punishments. It is deplorable that so low a sentiment shouldbe the only one with which to inspire the officers, in order to securethe zealous fulfillment of their duties. But so it is: their birth andeducation, and the flagrant instances of bought rewards, which areconstantly before their eyes, combine to render it the best sentiment ofwhich they are capable. This applies principally to the regimentalofficers in the lower ranks, upon whom the efficiency of an army so muchdepends. Great good is anticipated from the extended scale introducedinto the Military College, and it is said to be the intention of thegovernment to appoint as soon as possible officers to commands who havepassed through it, to the extinction of the old system of conferring thehighest rank upon Pachas, whether fitted for the position or not. 

Excepting the chief of the staff, and some of the aides-de-camp, thestaff in the field was composed of engineer officers, most of whom hadpassed some years in France or Belgium, while one had remained fiveyears in England. But these are men of a very different stamp from thegeneral run of regimental officers, who appear to think it the greatestprivilege of their position to get very drunk whenever the opportunityoffers itself, thus presenting a curious contrast with the remarkablesobriety of their men. One evening I chanced to witness a scene asamusing as it was characteristic of the people among whom I lived. Apost had arrived, and Osman Pacha's private Secretary was occupied indispensing the letters. The officers were admitted to his tent, and thechildish glee which they displayed was diverting in the extreme. Notonly did they mark their gratitude by kissing every portion of theSecretary's garments on which they could lay hand, but danced about, showing the epistles to all who approached. Fortunately, perhaps, few ofthese could read, so the breach of confidence was not very great. I haveoften noticed that an Oriental, when he does shake off the apatheticreserve habitual to him, becomes more excited and enthusiastic thanwarmer-blooded nations. At any rate they seem to possess a full measureof that natural instinct of joy at receiving tidings of loved ones infar distant lands. One of these letters was from the wife of an officer, who had not heard from her for many months, and whose last reports hadinformed him of the destruction of his house by fire. The apparentindifference with which he had received the first announcementcompletely gave way to a flood of happiness on hearing of the safety ofthose he loved. Verily they are not so devoid of feeling as is generallysupposed--these fatalist Turks. 

The arrival of Dervisch Pacha with six battalions from Bieliki, whichwas now occupied by two battalions of redif, converted Gasko into thesole base of operations. The rain, which had for the past few daysfallen in torrents, would have enabled Omer Pacha to have commencedhostilities on a greater scale, but for the dearth of provisions, whichshould have reached the frontier long since. It now became apparent thatlittle could be done during the remaining months of the year, for naturehad effected for the rebels whatever the indolence of the Turkishcommanders had left undone. The magnificent harvest of the precedingyear, which the rebels had appropriated, and the extraordinary droughtwhich had prevailed during the spring and summer of 1861, combined todiminish the Turkish prospects of success. Moreover, the object of theGeneralissimo was not so much to hunt down the rebels as to inspire themwith confidence in the leniency of the Sultan's rule, while he, at thesame time, occupied the country in such force as to convince them of thenecessity of eventual submission. Already were the good effects of thismeasure manifested in the rapid return of the inhabitants to thesurrounding villages. Metokhia, Aphtoria, and Lubniak, all in the closevicinity of the Turkish camp, had been deserted by their occupants, who, like the majority in the plain of Gasko, are of the Mussulman religion. These now returned to their desolated homes. 

[Footnote P: The French Consul at Scutari and member of the EuropeanCommission, a man as remarkable for talent as for cunning and love ofintrigue. ]

CHAPTER XIII. 

 Expedition to Niksich--Character of Scenery--Engineer Officers--Want of Maps--Affghan Dervish--Krustach--Wallack Colonel--Bivouac--Bashi Bazouks--Pass of Dougah--Plain of Niksich--Town and Frontier--Albanian Mudir--Turkish Women--Defects of Government by Mudir and Medjlis. 

The ennui produced by a long halt after a series of consecutive marcheshad by this time taken such a hold on me, that with delight I heard OmerPacha's announcement of his intention to send a force with provisionsfor the town and garrison of Niksich, whose proximity to Montenegroplaced them in the position of a beleaguered garrison, and rendered themdependent upon the government for the ordinary necessaries of life. Forthis duty Osman Pacha was detached, taking with him seven battalions andfour guns, which were subsequently reinforced by an eighth battalionfrom Krustach. For the first three hours our route lay in the valley ofGasko, which looked green and fertile, though showing few signs ofcultivation. The ruins of a church were the only antiquarian relicswhich I noticed on the march. At the extremity of the valley the pathwaywinds to the SE. , having the rugged Piwa, looking bleak and bare, on theleft, and the more wooded heights of Baniani on the right. Theconfiguration of the hills, and the sharp outline of the countrygenerally, combined with the indescribably wild and rocky character ofsome parts of the foreground, and the sloping grass banks in others, toproduce a picture at once grand and picturesque; but it was a picture ofwhich the eye soon wearied and the appreciation palled. There, asthroughout the whole march to Niksich, the country abounds with the mostmagnificent defensible positions; natural parapets, whence a mostdestructive fire might be poured upon an advancing foe, and incapable ofbeing turned by any flank movement; positions, in short, constructed forthe enactment of a second Thermopylæ. No signs of humanity were to befound in that barren region. Here and there the carcass of a strayhorse, which had died probably of pure inanition, and afforded a scantymeal to the birds and beasts of prey, was the only sign of aught thathad ever beat with the pulse of life. Leaving the main body, I came upwith a small party of engineer officers, employed in taking the angleson the line of march. The serious inconvenience resulting from the wantof a good map of these countries is now much felt. True, it waspartially removed by the existence of a map of Montenegro, including aportion of the Herzegovinian frontier, drawn by Major Cox[Q], R. E. , andpublished by the Topographical Department, a copy of which I hadpresented to Omer Pacha, and which was much appreciated by him. Veryproperly, however, he proposes that the country shall be surveyed byTurkish officers, and a map constructed upon their observations. Itsaccuracy will be somewhat doubtful, if we may judge from the crudemanner in which they set to work. The only instruments employed wereprismatic compasses, with which they jotted down angles at all thesalient points, an orderly dragoon counting his horse's paces in theintervening time, which was occasionally as much as twenty minutes. Passing these I reach the advance guard, and still pressing on I soonfind myself alone. No, not quite alone; another turn of the rocks bringsme abreast of a strange companion, his long flowing dress of yellowsurge, and Dervish's hat, with its hair-fringe, proclaim him to be oneof that large class of religious devotees who live in indolence byworking upon the superstition of their co-religionists. My friend, however, was a man of some affluence, and very superior in all respectsto the generality of his order. By birth an Affghan, he has spent manyyears in the Herzegovina, and had followed the army for some weeksbefore I chanced to meet him. Wherever there was a prospect of work ordanger there were his little bay stallion and tufted lance always to beseen. There was something weird-like in his presence, as he now satlike a statue on his horse, and anon darted forward with a flourish ofhis lance, sending up wreaths of blue smoke from the inseparablechibouque. We thus rode in company until we overtook the small force ofirregulars, who had been sent in advance of the main body. This constantuse of, and great reliance on, the Bashi Bazouks, is most prejudicial tothe efficiency of the service; for while it tends to deteriorate thespirit of the regulars by depriving them of the first chance of meetingthe enemy, it exposes the others to the influence of bribery, whichconstitutes so prominent a feature of Oriental warfare. Omer Pacha wellunderstands the disadvantages resulting therefrom, and will soon haveestablished a more healthy system. Already he has succeeded in inspiringthe troops with a degree of self-confidence, quite unprecedented, bymerely avoiding that error into which Turkish Generals so often fall, ofdetaching small bodies of troops, who are cut up by the enemy withoutobject and without result. Individually, he is perhaps somewhatdestitute of the _élan_ which is generally associated with the characterof a Guerilla chief, and yet without detracting from his character as amaster in the art of modern war, there is no species of campaigningwhich he understands so well as that which he has successfully waged inMontenegro and the other hill countries of the Turkish empire. Energyand caution are the two qualities indispensable to success in thesecountries, and these he possesses to an eminent degree. It may be deemedpresumptuous in me to pass an opinion upon one whose fame is world-wide;but that very fact must be my excuse, that those who are entitled touniversal admiration are likewise subject to universal criticism. I haveheard it urged that Fuad Pacha, the present Grand Vizier, who displayedmuch ability in the conduct of the war against the rebels in ThessalyandEpirus in 1854, would have succeeded better in the present hostilities. But, on the other hand, if the Grand Vizier be gifted with a greateramount of dash, Omer Pacha possesses a cooler judgement and a largerexperience than any man in the Turkish empire; and before leaving thesubject, I would call attention to the meritorious service which he hasrendered to the Sultan under all circumstances. Disgraced without cause, he has faithfully adhered to the country of his adoption, displayingthrough good report and evil report an integrity which does honour tohis principles. For, be it remembered, that he is bound by no ties ofblood or nationality, and that treachery to Turkey would probably serveas a passport to the highest honours in Austria or Russia. 

Apologising for this digression, I would now return to Osman Pacha andthe column whom I have left so far to the rear. Late in the afternoon wearrived at Krustach, a position somewhat similar to Koryta, and ofequal importance as regards the military occupation of the country. Thevalley is at this point shut in on either hand by hills of justsufficient height to give an advantageous command to a defending force;these are connected by a cross range, that present an apparentlyimpassable barrier to an advancing foe. This position is surmounted by asmall fort with a court-yard, whose walls are pierced for musketry. Fourguns of indifferent quality are here mounted, commanding the approacheson either side, while three guard-houses, each capable of holding two orthree companies, have been built on the most elevated positions, flanking the approach from the NW. The garrison consisted of twobattalions commanded by a Wallack colonel, who might have passed but forhis fez for an officer in the Russian service, so much did he resembleone of that nation in physiognomy. He appeared to be an active andintelligent officer, and had, I heard, rendered good service during theEastern war. The appearance of the valley that night was strange andpicturesque. Hundreds of fires stretched far up the sides of the cradleof hills in which our bivouac was formed, while a regular line of lightmarked the chain of outposts which crowned the surrounding heights. Head-quarters might be recognised by a large paper lantern suspended ona high stick close to the camp-fire, around which lay Osman Pacha, oneof his staff, the Affghan Dervish, and myself, all sleeping quite ascomfortably as though we had never known a bed. Trumpets sounded at 5A. M. For a start; and, having ascended to the fort, we foundthe sun struggling for the mastery with the clouds on the tops of theadjacent hills. The army was now in full motion; the regular infantrydefiled in something like order down the narrow path, which had beenimperceptible to us on the preceding evening. The Bashi Bazouks, on theother hand, might be seen streaming down the hill-side, jumping, rolling, and tumbling in strange confusion. Having inspected the fort wejoined in with these, and rode down a descent, which would have beenimpracticable for any save the sure-footed iron-plated horses of theEast. After traversing the valley for some miles, the rugged line ofPiwa closed in upon us on the left, and a black impenetrable mountainseemed to bar our farther progress. After three quarters of an hour'sascent we were glad to halt. Clambering to a grassy knoll, we made afrugal meal of the hardest of biscuit soaked in muddy water, the onlyfood, by the way, which the troops tasted from the time of leaving Gaskountil their return. These biscuits are manufactured at Constantinople, and are so hard as to be uneatable unless soaked; they, however, form agood substitute for bread, which is seldom to be procured. But we mustnot linger too long, for already the sun is high in the heavens. On, on, once more, brave little horses and unflinching men; your labourswill soon be rewarded: and thus they toiled on, until, with sobbingflanks and perspiring brows, the highest requisite point was reached. Stretching away to our right front was a grassy glade, looking likevelvet after the stony wilderness we had just left: a pine wood on theleft gave it all the appearance of an English park, which was onlydispelled by the extraordinary sight which now met the eye. Behind a dipin the ground were collected a considerable body of irregular horse andfoot, who were awaiting our approach in all the magnificence of banners, kettledrums, sackbuts, psalteries, and all kinds of possible andimpossible instruments of music. No sooner did we approach than awaythey went, horse and foot, shouting and blowing and waving their flags. The idea seemed contagious, for it was instantaneously followed by OsmanPacha and everyone who bestrode any kind of beast, prominent amongstwhom the Affghan might be seen, flourishing his lance well to the fore. The glade opened out into a valley of inconsiderable size, which haswitnessed more than one encounter between the Christians and Turks. Onlythe previous winter an engagement took place, in which the Turks, notwithstanding that they remained masters of the position, had fromforty to fifty men put _hors de combat_. The timber here was of farfiner growth than any I had yet seen, and the numerous oaks and elmslying with uptorn roots betokened the violence of the storms which rage. Many of them were lying midway across our line of march, and it wasfound necessary to remove them to admit of a free passage. This was sooneffected, though perhaps with a little more noise than is consistentwith English ideas of order. We had by this time entered the Pass ofDugah, formed by the extremities of Piwa on the left, and Banian on theright. The slopes on either hand are wooded, that of Banian to much thegreatest extent. It is some fifteen miles in length, and consists of aseries of open spaces, connected by narrow defiles, whose bottomsresemble the bed of a dry stream. The scenery is generally pretty, andabounds with interest from its being a constant bone of contentionbetween the rival factions. As a defensive position it is undoubtedlystrong; but there is nothing in the nature of the ground in reality toimpede the advance of a determined force. While halted in one of theopen spaces which I have mentioned, we discovered a hole or cavern inthe side of the hill, capable of holding at least two hundred men. Doubtless this is a constant resort of the freebooters and other lawlessruffians who infest this part of the country. It was here that theEuropean Consuls were nearly meeting their deaths, although accompaniedby the Secretary of the Montenegrin Prince, when employed in makingarrangements for the relief of Niksich, which was then invested. 

It was dark before we reached the extremity of the valley, and littledid we then think under what circumstances we should next see it. Thelatter portion of our march lay through a wood of hazel and other smalltrees, intersected here and there by pathways. Here we were met by moreirregulars, and, debouching from the high land, we found a portion ofthe garrison of Niksich drawn up on the opposite bank of a little streamwhich flowed beneath us. The contour of the surrounding country is veryremarkable: the gray heights of Piwa behind us, Drobniak to our left, and Banian looking green by comparison on the right, while the rockymountains of Karatag form a dark and gloomy foreground to the picture. 

During the ensuing night the rain descended in torrents, rendering thespongy ground on which we had bivouacked very much the reverse of adesirable resting-place. In vain I waited for an improvement in theweather, which only became worse and worse; and eventually I started inpursuit of that portion of the troops which had left at early dawn incharge of the provisions for Niksich. These consisted of 65, 000 okes ofmeal and biscuit, with a few head of horned cattle. The last commodityappeared to me to be scarcely necessary, as we met some hundreds ofbullocks being driven out to graze in the valley, while the presence ofour force rendered such a measure safe. How these were generallysupplied with forage I am at a loss to conjecture, since the Mussulmanpopulation were unable to venture more than one mile from the town, except in bodies of 500 armed men. The distance to the town from thecommencement of the valley is about six miles, through a broad andwell-watered pasture land. In parts this has been ploughed and devotedto the produce of grain, burnt stubble of which denoted the destructiveferocity of the neighbouring Montenegrins. The new line of frontierrecently defined by the European Commission scarcely tends to promote apacific adjustment of existing difficulties. On the contrary, the lineof demarcation as it now is must inevitably lead to furthercomplications. Situated at the apex of a triangle, the town and plain ofNiksich offer a tempting bait to the lawless brigands, who infest themountains which form two of its sides, and who keep the unfortunateMussulman population in terror of their lives. At the south-easternextremity of the plain stands the town of Niksich, a small, dirty, andirregular collection of buildings, all huddled together in the closestpossible vicinity to the ruined fort, as though seeking the protectionof its mouldering walls. Of the origin of the fort I could learn little, save from an inscription over the arched entrance, from which itappears to have been built by the son of an old and influential Albanianchieftain about 200 years ago. Two square towers, containing five piecesof ordnance, form the principal feature in the defensive works; but thewhole place is in so ricketty a condition that, were a cannonade to beopened from its walls, they would inevitably come down about the ears oftheir defenders. From the easternmost of these towers the town runs outsome few hundred yards towards the Montenegrin frontier; but all egressupon that side is out of the question, as there is ever a bullet inreadiness for anyone who may be so rash as to cross a certain greenpatch of grass, which appears to be accepted as the legitimate boundaryof the two provinces, although not precisely specified as such. At thispoint the Turkish sentries are withdrawn, but farther to the south asmall white building serves as a guard-house, whence sentries aresupplied to form a cordon round that portion of the frontier. Onarriving at Niksich, we--that is, Osman Pacha's principal staff officerand myself--paid a visit to the Mudir, whom we found sitting indignified conclave with his whole Medjlis. The Mudir, a magnificentAlbanian, standing about six feet four inches, and of proportionategirth, welcomed us most cordially, and appeared a person of far greaterintelligence than most of his class. He bitterly lamented the increaseof suffering, resulting from the change in the line of frontier. 'Attacks by the Montenegrins and their friends, ' said he, 'are now ofdaily occurrence, and there seems to be no chance of any improvement inour condition. ' He expressed great confidence, however, in theadvantages to be derived from Omer Pacha's arrival, and took a clear andsound view of things generally. He argued, correctly enough, that therebels would stand a good chance of being literally starved intosubmission during the ensuing winter and spring, since the occupation ofthe country by the Turkish troops had prevented them from getting intheir harvest, while the benighted frenzy which they had themselvesdisplayed in the wanton destruction of the crops had deterred theneighbouring landowners from cultivating their fields. But the openintelligent face of our friend, the Mudir, lit up, more especially whentelling us of some of the dours which he had made against the rebels;and in good sooth he looked better fitted for such employment, judgingfrom his great length and breadth, than for sitting hour after hour onhis haunches, emitting clouds of tobacco-smoke, and reflecting upon theindividuality of God, and the plurality of wives, reserved in the nextworld for all those who say their prayers regularly, and kill asufficient number of Feringhees in this. These stereotyped notions, however, regarding the tenets of Mahometanism are fast losing credence, just in proportion as the growth of European ideas is undermining itsvery foundation. I do not say that Mussulmans are becoming morereligious or more elevated from their contact with Christian peoples. Indeed, I rather incline to the opposite opinion; but the Europeantendencies which prevail are marked clearly enough by the facileadroitness with which the followers of the Prophet contrive to evade theinjunctions of the Koran, whether it be in the matter of wines andstrong drinks, or the more constitutional difficulty touching loans, debts, and the like. For myself, I rather incline to the view of the oldPacha, who, after listening with his habitual patience to thelong-winded arguments of a Protestant missionary, completelydumb-foundered that excellent divine by remarking that he (the Pacha)felt quite convinced of the similarity of their creeds, since the onlyapparent difference was, that the Christian has three Gods and one wife, while the Mussulman has three wives and one God. Even in this lastmatter, the plurality of wives, a marvellous amendment is visible. It isprobably owing to the expense attendant thereon, and also to the littlefact, that it is not quite in accordance with the spirit of the age todrown, or otherwise destroy, those women who indulge their verypardonable and womanly frailty of wrangling and fighting one withanother. But, granting all this, it is impossible not to perceive thatthe position of Turkish women is daily improving. All of a certainclass receive some education; and I never yet spoke to any intelligentTurk on the subject without hearing him deplore the existence of thoselaws in the Koran which would deprive the world of that which renders itmost enjoyable. That the time will come when the religious influences ofMahometanism will cease to offer a bar to all progress and advancement, is sufficiently evident, and it consequently behoves Europe to guardagainst the re-establishment of moral heathenism on the ruin offanatical Islamism. 

Returning to the council-chamber of the Mudir of Niksich, I would callattention to the similarity of expression and venerable appearance ofnearly every member of the Medjlis. This is one of the faults of thesystem, that an undue preponderance is thereby given to the ideas of acertain class. 

From the experience of those Europeans who have had good opportunitiesof forming an opinion, it would seem that this double government ofPacha and Medjlis works badly, owing to the ignorance and want ofcapacity of those from whom the latter are selected. It would, therefore, be far more salutary were they only permitted to advise inplace of having a vote; absolute authority being vested in the Pacha, who should be held personally responsible that the rights of the peoplebe not infringed, and rigorously punished if convicted of malpractices. Many will doubtless deny the advantages to be thus derived; but it isself-evident that in half-civilised countries power should be in thehands of as few as possible. 

It is not my intention to enter the lists as the champion of the OttomanGovernment, whose apathy and insincerity cannot be too stronglycondemned; but I contend that governments, like everything else, must bejudged by comparison, and that the only true measure of the merits of agovernment is the moral and social condition of the people whom itrules. The Turkish Government, whether regarded in its central orprovincial bearings, is decidedly in advance of its subjects. In itsdiplomatic relations, in monetary and financial schemes, Turkey has atany rate acquired a certain amount of credit, while an increase of therevenue from four to nearly twelve millions within the past thirtyyears, and the continued increase of the Christian population, is acertain proof of the diminution of oppression, and proves conclusivelythat a remnant of vitality still exists in her veins. 

[Footnote Q: The British member of the European Commission for definingthe frontier of Montenegro. ]

CHAPTER XIV. 

 Return to Gasko--Thunderstorm--Attacked by Rebels--Enemy repulsed--Retrograde Movement--Eventful Night--Turkish Soldiers murdered--Montenegrin Envoy--Coal-Pit--Entrenched Camp assaulted--Return of Omer Pacha to Mostar--Distinctive Character of Mahometan Religion--Naval Reorganisation--Military Uniforms--Return to Mostar--Dervisch Bey--Zaloum--Express Courier--Giovanni--Nevresign--Fortified Barrack--Mostar--Magazine--Barracks--Wooden Block-houses--European Commission--Tour of the Grand Vizier--Enquiry into Christian Grievances--Real Causes of Complaint--Forcible Abduction of Christian Girls--Prince Gortschakoff's Charges--The Meredits--Instincts of Race. 

On our return from the town we found the leading battalions in the actof crossing the stream which separates the valley from the overhangingwoodland. The 900 ponies, now deprived of their burden, carried in lieuthereof sick soldiers from Niksich, or such as preferred riding towalking. Little order prevailed, and it is only wonderful that theconsequences of entering a defile more than an hour after midday shouldnot have proved more disastrous than they actually did. In vain I addedmy remonstrances to those of some of the staff, who were intelligentenough to predict evil. The order had been issued. The advance guard hadalready marched, and it was too late to countermand the departure. Thussaying, Osman Pacha crossed the stream and ascended to the high ground, now covered with a confused mass of bipeds and quadrupeds. At thismoment the rain, which had ceased during the past hour, began to descendonce more in torrents, accompanied by vivid flashes of lightning andthunder, which, though still distant, reverberated through the woodswith grand effect. In the midst of this we retraced our steps untilabout 4 P. M. , when the centre of the column, with the baggageand head-quarters, defiled from the woods into one of the open spaces, of which mention has been made. The General informed me of his intentionto halt there until the morning; and he could not have found a spotbetter calculated for the purpose, since, by massing the troops in thecentre, they would have been out of range of the surrounding heights, and a double line of sentries would have been the only precautionabsolutely necessary. For some reason he, however, subsequently changedhis mind, and the delay which had taken place only made matters worse. The advance guard of four battalions, under Yaya Pacha, had continuedthe march in ignorance of the halt of the main body, and were ere thisout of hearing or chance of recall. Scarcely had we recommenced ouradvance when a dropping shot in the rear gave us the first announcementthat the enemy had taken advantage of our false step, and was bent onharassing what would now assume the appearance of a retreat. 

The shots, which were at first few and distant, soon increased, and bythe time that the Affghan and myself had reached the rear of the columnthe action appeared to have become general. Ali Pacha, who commanded therear-guard, now committed the grave error of halting the threebattalions of his brigade, and wasted most valuable time in performingdesultory movements, and in firing volleys of grape and musketry, without arriving at any practical results. At one point, however, therebels, who were advancing in force with loud cries of fanaticalvengeance, received a substantial check. Two companies of Turks had beenconcealed on either side of the defile, which was narrow at this point. Concealment was facilitated by approaching darkness, and it was only ata given signal that they rose and poured a deadly volley into the ranksof the advancing foe, who immediately fell back. This circumstanceappeared to damp their ardour, and they contented themselves withrunning in small parties along the flank of our line of march; two orthree would dash down the sloping banks, and, having discharged theirpieces without aim or precision, would return to the safety afforded bythe rocks and trees. It was between 6 and 7 o'clock before the order toresume the march was issued. And now began a scene which none whowitnessed are likely to forget to their dying day: deeply tragical itmight have been, but fortunately circumstances combined to render itmerely ridiculous, as reflected in the mirror of memory. The rain stillfell heavily, lying in places to the depth of nearly a foot, andconverting all the ground that was not rocky into a slippery quagmire. So profound was the darkness, that it was literally impossible to seeany object six inches from one's eyes, and it was only by the occasionalflashes from the firelocks of the persevering enemy and the forkedlightning that we could realise the surrounding scene. By the light ofthe last were revealed horses and men falling in all directions, and Imay safely say, that some of the 'crumplers' received that night wouldhave shaken the nerve of the hardest steeplechase rider. For my own partI preferred walking, after my horse had fallen twice, and with thisobject proceeded to dismount, but on bringing my leg to the ground, as Iimagined, I made a rapid descent of about eight feet. On clambering up Iwas met with a sharp blow on the face from what I believe to have beenthe butt of a Turkish musket, and my horse was not to be found. Abouthalf an hour later, while feeling for the road, to my greatsatisfaction, I placed my hand upon my English saddle, and thusrepossessed myself of my steed. No need to dilate farther on the eventsof that disastrous evening. Suffice to say that, after some hours moreof scrambling and toiling, falling frequently over the stones and treeswhich were strewn plentifully across the path, we reached the spotwhere the advanced body had arrived some four hours previously, and hadsucceeded, in spite of the rain, in kindling a few fires. It was closeupon midnight when Ali Pacha arrived at head-quarters to report that therear-guard had reached the bivouac, though nothing was known as to thelosses incurred in men, horses, or provisions. All that was certain wasthat one gun had been abandoned, the mule which carried it having rolleddown a ravine. This was never found, as the rebels, who passed the nightwithin ten minutes' walk of our bivouac, had carried it off before thearrival of the force sent back at daybreak to effect its recovery. Ourloss, however, proved to be insignificant--two killed and six wounded, and a few ponies, &c. , missing. As might be supposed, the Slavishnewspapers magnified the affair into a great and decisive victory forthe rebels. It is true that it reflected little credit on Osman Pacha;and it might have been fully as disastrous to the Turks as their worstenemies could have desired, had not the intense darkness of the night, the heavy rain, and the want of pluck in the Christians (a fault ofwhich they cannot in general be accused), combined to get them out ofthe scrape without any serious loss. The two whose deaths it wasimpossible to disallow, as their mangled bodies gave evidence thereof, were foully butchered by these long-suffering Christians. It came aboutas follows:--An officer and three soldiers had remained a little in rearof the column, being footsore with the march. As the rebels came swiftlyand quietly along, one of the soldiers, believing them to be a Turkishregiment, made some observation. In a moment he and his comrade wereseized, and, while receiving many assurances of safety, were stripped tothe skin. The officer and the third soldier instantly concealedthemselves behind some of the projecting rocks, within ten yards of thespot, and thus became auditors of the ensuing tragedy. No sooner had therebels stripped their unfortunate captives, than they fell upon them enmasse, literally making pin-cushions of their naked bodies. Throughoutthat long and painful night did those two men lie hid in jeopardy oftheir lives, and glad must they have been when they saw the rebelsretracing their blood-stained steps on the following morning, and moregrateful still when the arrival of the Turkish force enabled them tofeel assured of life and liberty. The following afternoon we returned toKrustach, where we found a Montenegrin emissary, who was journeyinghomeward, having had an interview with Omer Pacha. He was a finely builtand handsome man, dressed in his national costume, with a gold-braidedjacket, and decorated with a Russian medal and cross, for his servicesagainst Turkey at a time when Russia was at peace with that power. Hehad been Superintendent of the Montenegrin workmen at Constantinople, and had consequently seen something of European manners, althoughunacquainted with any language save Slave and some Turkish. He told methat he had left 400 followers in Piwa; but this I found did not exactlycoincide with a statement he had made to Omer Pacha, and it subsequentlytranspired that his body guard amounted to about double that number. This worthy asked me to accompany him to Cettigne, but circumstancesconspired to prevent my accepting the invitation; and so we separated, he to Cettigne, we to Gasko on the following day. 

During one of the halts on the line of march, I found the mouth of whatmust have been a coal-pit of large dimensions. The entrance of this wason the bank of a dry stream, and several masses of what appeared to be aconcrete of lignite and coal betokened the existence of the latter in apurer form within the bowels of the surrounding country. This I showedto Omer Pacha, who said that he would adopt my suggestion of having itworked by military labour for the purpose of consumption during thewinter months. In several places, I subsequently came across the samecharacteristics, which convince me of the existence of a spuriousdescription of coal in large quantities in the province. In Bosnia itis plentiful, and of a very superior quality. 

Some miles before we reached the camp we were met by Omer Pacha and hisstaff. 

As may be supposed, the most extravagant reports of the extent of ourdisaster had preceded us. The most moderate of these involved the deathof Ali Pacha (no great loss by the way), and about 1, 000 men put _horsde combat_. Omer's face wore a grave expression when we met, and his 'Ehbien, Monsieur, nous avons perdu un canon sans utilité' boded ill forthe peace of Osman Pacha. It was a pleasing duty to be able to refutethe assertion that this last had lost his head on the occasion inquestion. Although guilty of grievous error of judgement, the other morepitiful charge could hardly be laid to his account, since he never for amoment lost his habitual sangfroid and self-possession. 

The subsequent operations during 1861 were scarcely of a more decisivenature than those in the early part of the campaign. They consisted forthe most part of slight skirmishes, which, though unimportant inthemselves, tended to establish the Turks in their occupation of thecountry, and produced a good moral effect. 

One event, however, deserves notice, as giving fair evidence of therespective merits of the belligerent parties. In pursuance of the planwhich he had originally devised, Omer Pacha established a permanentfortified camp in Piwa. Twelve battalions under Dervisch Pacha wereconcentrated at this point; and at the time of the contest which I amabout to describe, Omer Pacha was himself present. Reduced to thegreatest straits by famine and the presence of the Turkish troops, andinspired doubtless by the knowledge of the Generalissimo's presence inthe camp, the rebels resolved to make a desperate onslaught upon theentrenchments. 

On the morning of October 26, a strong force was despatched from camp toprocure forage, wood, and other necessaries. While thus employed, theenemy, favoured by the formation of the surrounding country, made asudden and well-sustained attack upon this force, in conjunction with aconsentaneous assault upon the entrenchments. With more judgement thanis generally found amongst Turkish commanders, the foraging party wasbrought back to camp, though not before it had suffered a considerableloss. In the meantime charge upon charge was being made by thehalf-naked savages who formed the Christian army, against the enclosedspace which was dignified by the name of an entrenched camp. Three timesthey forced an entrance, and three times were they driven out at thepoint of the bayonet, while the guns mounted on the works made wide gapsin their retreating columns. After several hours' hard fighting, inwhich both sides displayed exemplary courage, the assailants werecompelled to withdraw, leaving many hundred dead upon the field. TheTurkish loss was something under a hundred, owing to the advantage theyderived from fighting under the cover of their guns and walls. 

Shortly after this event Omer Pacha returned to Mostar, contentinghimself with holding the various passes and other points on thefrontier, which enabled him to keep an unremitting watch over thedisturbed district. 

Early in the spring of 1862 he returned to the frontier, which he willdoubtless pacify before the extreme heat and drought shall have forcedhim to suspend military operations. With this view eighteen battalionsof infantry and 3, 000 irregulars have been concentrated at and aboutTrebigné, which he has this year made his base of operations. Thejudicious disposal of his troops, which he has effected, have drivenLuca Vukalovitch and his band of hornets to take refuge in Suttorina, adjacent to the Austrian territory. This circumstance caused theAustrians at the end of last year to enter that district for the purposeof destroying certain batteries, which were considered to be too closeto the Austrian frontier. The legality of this measure is doubtful; yetit may be believed that the step was not taken with any view topromoting hostilities with Turkey. 

The final success of the Turkish arms can scarcely be long delayed, since starvation must inevitably effect all in which the sword may fail. The armed occupation of the country during the past year has at any rateso far worked good, that it has effectually prevented the rebelliousChristians from getting in the crops which belonged to themselves ortheir weaker neighbours, while it has enabled such of the Mussulmans aschose to do so to reap their harvest in security. Should theseexpectations, however, not be realised, the result would indeed beserious to the Ottoman empire. In such case either her already rottenexchequer must receive its death-blow, or she will be compelled toevacuate the Herzegovina, a course which would be gladly welcomed by herenemies, since it would probably be but the first step towards thedismemberment of the whole empire. 

Before quitting the army, I would fain pay a passing tribute to the goodqualities of the Turkish soldiers. Having seen them under circumstancesof no ordinary difficulty and privations, I found them ever cheerful andcontented with their unenviable lot. Uninfluenced by feelings ofpatriotism--for such a word exists not in their language--unaffected bythe love of glory, which they have not sufficient education tocomprehend, the only motives by which they are actuated are theirveneration for their Sultan and the distinctive character of theirreligion. It would be well for their Sultan did he appreciate thesterling military qualities of his people. With good management andhonest reform, an army might be created which, if inferior in _matériel_to those of certain European powers, would in the matter of _personnel_be sufficiently good to render the Turkish dominions perfectly securefrom hostile invasion, which is now very far from the case. At present, unfortunately, his whole attention is devoted to the manning andequipment of the navy, for the amelioration of which large sums of moneyare paid and heavy debts incurred. The visionary character of hisambitious projects on this head is apparent to all but himself, sincethe Turkish navy can scarcely be expected ever to attain more than afifth or sixth-rate excellence. The recent changes in the dress of thearmy betoken that some attention has been devoted of late to thesubject. Nothing can be more desirable than an assimilation of theuniform to the natural style of costume; and the loose Zouave dresses ofthe army of the Turkish imperial guard[R] are not only better adapted tosoldiers who do not indulge in the luxury of beds and the like, than thetight-fitting garments heretofore in use, but present a far moreworkmanlike appearance, for the simple reason that they understandbetter how to put them on. 

After a month's sojourn in the tents of the Osmanlis, the rapidshortening of the days warned me of the necessity for pushing on if Iwished to see the more peaceable portion of the country, before thesnows of winter should render travelling impossible. Already the day hadarrived when the first fall of snow had taken place in the previousyear. 

Despite the hardships indispensable from the kind of life we had beenliving, it was with much regret that I bade farewell to my hospitableentertainers, and started once more on my solitary rambles. For thefirst day, at least, I was destined to have company, as the Pacha ofBosnia's private Secretary was about to return to Bosna Serai, havingfulfilled a mission on which he had been sent to the camp of theCommander-in-Chief. My object was to return to Mostar by way ofNevresign, which, as well as being new ground to me, forms a portion ofthe projected line of defence. After waiting no less than five hours anda half for an escort of Bashi Bazouks, who, with true Turkish ideas ofthe value of time, presented themselves at 12. 30, having been warned tobe in attendance at 7 A. M. , we at length got under weigh. Theseirregulars were commanded by Dervisch Bey, one of the principal Beys inthat neighbourhood. Some twenty years ago his father, a devoutMussulman, and a cordial hater of Christians, whom, it must beacknowledged, he lost no opportunity of oppressing, built for himself alarge square house flanked with towers, and otherwise adapted fordefensive purposes. This is situated about six miles from Gasko, andhere he lived in considerable affluence. Taken one day at an unguardedmoment, he was murdered by the Christians, and his mantle descended uponhis son, who, if he has not the same power or inclination to oppress, shows himself perfectly ready to do battle on all occasions against themurderers of his father. This individual, then, mounted on a gooduseful-looking horse, and loaded with silver-hilted daggers, pistols, and other weapons of offence, was destined to be our guide. Our road laythrough a long narrow defile, which, like most parts of the Herzegovina, abounds with positions capable of defence. After five hours' travellingwe arrived at Zaloum, a small military station situated at the highestpoint of the pass. I did not see any attempt at fortifications; but, asall the villages are built quite as much with a view to defence asconvenience, these are hardly necessary. Every house is surrounded by acourt-yard, in most cases loopholed. Taking up our quarters at the onlyhouse capable of affording the most ordinary shelter, we passed theevening, as far as I was concerned, pleasantly enough. The Secretary, amiddle-aged and very affable Slave, was also somewhat of a _bon vivant_, and, with the help of sundry adjuncts which he carried with him, we madea very good meal. The habit of drinking rakee, eating cheese, and otherprovocatives of thirst before dining, is quite as rife in these parts ofthe empire as at Stamboul, and it frequently happens that thedinner-hour of a fashionable man is later than in London during theheight of the season. Breakfasting at twelve, they do not touch foodagain till dinner-time, and even then their repeated nips of rakee takenin the hour previous to the repast renders them little disposed foreating. Shortly after we had commenced dinner at Zaloum, a greatchattering and confusion in the court-yard proclaimed a new arrival. This proved to be Asiz Bey, an aide-de-camp of Omer Pacha, who was onhis road to Mostar. Snatching a hurried meal, he once more mounted, andpushed on in the darkness, with the intention of not pulling rein againuntil his arrival in Mostar. Later in the evening an excitedagriculturist made his appearance, and with much humility demanded thereturn of his pack-saddle, which he affirmed that one of my servants hadstolen. It fell out in this wise: I had engaged a certain youth of theGreek faith, named Giovanni, to look after my baggage-ponies, which heinvariably allowed to stray whenever most required. On the occasion ofour leaving Gasko one of these was, as usual, absent without leave, andon his being discovered, the pack-saddle in which these long-sufferinganimals pass their existence had been removed. Giovanni, whosepilfering habits were only equalled by his disregard of truth, replacedthe missing article in the simplest way, by doing unto others as theyhad done unto him, and appropriated the first saddle he came across. Toallow the saddle to return to Gasko was impossible, as I could not haveproceeded on my journey without it; so I induced the owner to part withit at a considerable profit, mulcting Giovanni of the same. Thefollowing morning we descended into the plain of Nevresign, one of theseven or eight large plains in the province. 

The road approaching the town passes between two cemeteries--that of theMussulmans on the right being the most pleasantly situated, for thus itwas that, even in death, they were more regarded than theirless-favoured Christian brethren. On the outskirts I noticed a veryprimitive movable house, strongly characteristic of the kind of life ledby the people: it consisted of two skates, with a hurdle laid across forflooring and others for walls, the whole being thatched. In this theshepherd sleeps when he pens his cattle: this he does in a very smallspace, shifting his position every night, and thus practically manuringthe country. The town itself has little worthy of notice, save the newfortified barrack which the Turks are constructing. No labourers were, however, engaged upon it at the time of my visit: it consists of anoblong work, with bastions at the angles, on each of which it isintended to mount three guns. It was proposed to build accommodationfor 1, 600 men, but the size of the work did not appear to me to warrantthe belief that it would hold so many. There will be no necessity forthe townspeople to take shelter within its walls in the event of anattack, as it immediately overhangs the town, and is itself commanded bythe hills in its rear. The engineer officer who conducted me over itinformed me that an earthwork would be thrown up on the most commandingposition, and two block-houses built at other points. The arrangementsfor obtaining a supply of water appeared simple; and as it is the onlyattempt at modern fortification which I have seen in Turkey, I shall becurious to hear of its completion. 

Leaving Nevresign one crosses two mountains, which, with the exceptionof about an hour and a half distance, are traversed by a road. Save onein course of construction from Mostar to Metcovich, it is the onlyattempt at road-making in the province. It is bad enough, as all Turkishroads are, their engineers having not the slightest idea of levelling. They take the country as they find it, apparently thinking that azigzag, no matter at what slope the angles may be, is the highesttriumph of their art. Until our arrival at Blagai, six miles fromMostar, an escort was deemed necessary, though it was really of not theslightest use, since the rebels, if so inclined, might have disposed ofthe whole party without once showing themselves. On nearing Mostar Ilooked with curiosity for any signs of progress in the new powdermagazine or barracks, which are situated in the plain outside the town. They both appeared in precisely the same condition as when I left, savefor the absence of some hundreds of ponies, which were at that momenteating mouldy hay at Gasko and its vicinity. In the barrack squareseveral block-houses which Omer Pacha had ordered appeared to be in astate of completion. These are made of wood and have two stories, eachhouse being capable of containing about two companies of infantry. Thewalls are loopholed and of sufficient thickness to resist musket balls:the use to which they were to be applied was the protection of workingparties and small detachments during the construction of more permanentdefences; and as the rebels are without carcases or liquid fire-balls orother scientific implements of destruction, it is possible that they mayanswer their purpose well enough. 

At the British Consulate I found Mr. H. , the Consul at Bosna Serai, whowas on his road to Ragusa, where the European Commission for carryingout reforms in Turkey was about to reassemble, with the view of watchingthe progress of events. Little good could be expected to result fromtheir deliberations, for matters had not been in any way simplifiedsince their adjournment two months before. The sincerity of theindividual members of the Commission cannot be called in question; butwhat avails that, when other agents of the governments so representedapply themselves with assiduity to stultify the very measures whichtheir colleagues are endeavouring to effect. As might have beenanticipated, their sittings at Ragusa proved as ineffectual as those atMostar, and in three weeks' time they once more adjourned, and have notsince reassembled. Whatever difference of opinion may have existedamongst the members on this point, at any rate they professedly agreedthat it is for the interest of these provinces that the Turkish ruleshould remain inviolate, but that this rule must be very decidedlyameliorated. Of its sincerity in wishing to bring this about the Portewill find it difficult to convince the Christian malcontents, so deeplyrooted is their mistrust. Secret agents are not wanting to check anyspirit of wavering which may show itself in the insurgents. In themeanwhile both Bosnia and Herzegovina are being rapidly exhausted. Evenin peaceable times, the people of the Herzegovina had to draw theirsupplies of grain from Bosnia, while the import trade of both provincesmore than doubled the export in value. The demand for horses formilitary purposes has of late still farther crippled commercialenterprise, as the people are thereby deprived of the only means oftransport in the country. At Mostar, even, it was impossible to buycoals, as the peasants were afraid of exposing their horses to theprobability of being pressed, with the certainty of remaining unpaid. 

The foregoing remarks may appear to corroborate ill my oft-repeatedassertion of the immunity of the Christians from persecution by theconstituted Mussulman authorities. A distinction should be made betweenoppression and misgovernment, the existence of which last is fullyadmitted on all hands. It applies in an almost equal degree to theprofessors of all religions in Turkey; and when the Christians have beeninduced by designing minds, as has sometimes been the case, to pour outto the world a torrent of grievances, these have been proved in almostall instances to have been as much imaginary as real; such at least wasthe opinion of the Grand Vizier, after his visit of enquiry throughEuropean Turkey in 1860; and his views, which might otherwise be deemedprejudiced, were supported by Mr. L----, the Consul-General at Belgrade, who was deputed by the British Ambassador to attend the Ottomanfunctionary. That gentleman's opinion--concurred in, as it is, by almostall British officials--is especially worthy of attention, since thegreater part of his life has been passed in the Turkish dominions, and alarge share of his attention devoted to this particular subject. AtWiddin, a petition was presented, signed by 300 persons, complaining ofthe local authorities. These names were mostly forgeries, and even thealleged grievances were of a trivial nature; outrages, and forcedconversion to Islamism, could nowhere be proved. The source whence thepetition emanated may be shrewdly guessed, since M. Sokoloff, theRussian Consul at Widdin, was removed to Jerusalem only a few daysbefore the commencement of the enquiry. One subject of complaint was theappointment of the bishops by the patriarch at Constantinople, whichstrongly confirms the supposition of its Russian origin. The petitionwas moreover presented by one Tuno, a Rayah, who had been turned out ofthe Medjlis for corruption, and was at the time a hanger-on at theRussian consulate. Those few who acknowledged to having signed thedocument, stated that they believed it to have been a remonstranceagainst the pig tax. 

The second ground of complaint was that the Cadi had interfered in theaffairs of the Christians; i. E. In matters of inheritance, and in theadministration of the property of minors. This also proved untenable, although, in the course of the enquiry, it transpired that something ofthe sort had occurred at Crete, which was ingeniously perverted to suittheir purpose on the occasion in question. 

Thirdly, it was alleged that the Christian members of the Medjlis wereallowed no voice in its deliberations. This the Bishop even denied. Hadthey said that their opinions were of little weight, it would have beennearer the truth. Nor can we wonder at this, since it is in vain that welook for any spirit of independence among the Christian members; andthis not more in consequence of the domineering spirit of the Turks, than from the natural disposition of the Christians, which is cringingand corrupt. Time and education can alone effect a change for thebetter. The government may, by the promulgation of useful edicts, and bythe establishment of schools common to all religions, materially hastenthis desirable end; but in the present condition of the Christianpopulation, it is questionable whether more harm than good would notresult from the proclamation of social equality. 

The veritable grounds of complaint, on which the petition in questiondid not touch, it is within the power of the government to remove; andthis, we may confidently anticipate, will be done. 

Equality before the law is the principal and first thing to beestablished, and such at present is not the case. Christian evidence, for example, is received in criminal, but not in civil causes, i. E. Inquestions concerning property. Moreover, even in criminal causes of anyimportance, the decision of the inferior courts, where Christianevidence is admissible, is referred for confirmation to superior courts, where such testimony is not accepted. In defence of this it is urged, that Turkish property would be endangered, if, in the presentdemoralised state of society, Christian evidence were admitted. But, while advancing this argument, it is forgotten that this state istraceable to the lax and vicious system pursued in the Mussulman courts, where, as the only way of securing justice for the Christians, Mussulmanwitnesses are allowed to give false evidence. 

Another abuse, of which the most is made by the enemies of Turkey, isthe forcible abduction of Christian girls by Mussulmans. The practicehas, however, almost died out, except in northern Albania; and yet it isthis alone which formed the groundwork of the most important of PrinceGortschakoff's charges, viz. The forced conversion of Christians toIslamism. It would, doubtless, fall into disuse in that part of thecountry, were the offence dealt with as an ordinary police affair; butthe clumsy machinery of Turkish law, however sincere may be its object, has done little to diminish the evil. Many schemes have been devised forits prevention. One was to make the girl appear before the court whichrejects Christian evidence, and declare herself a Christian orMussulman. If she confessed her faith, she was returned to her friends, and the ravisher nominally punished; but, as they almost always declaredthemselves to be Mahomedans, the Christians complained that fear orother undue pressure had been put upon them. To obviate this, it wasdecided that the girl should be sequestered in the house of the Bishopfor three days previous to her making her profession of faith. This has, however, been discontinued, as it produced much scandal; and thequestion remains undecided. 

Instincts of race are far stronger in Turkey than is generally supposed. In Albania, where the Mussulmans are deemed more fanatical thanelsewhere, these are more powerful than even the instincts of religion. Thus, while other Christians are looked down upon and treated withseverity, the Miridits, who are of Albanian blood, are allowed to weartheir arms, and admitted to equal privileges with their Mahomedanfellow-countrymen. In Bosnia, more than anywhere throughout the empire, the question has been one of feudal origin, that is to say, of aprivileged and unprivileged class, analogous to that which now occupiesthe Russians; although in Bosnia the former class has been graduallylosing importance, and sinking into a lower position. 

To the demoralised condition of the Christians themselves, then, combined with Turkish misgovernment, resulting from theirsemi-civilisation, may the existing unsatisfactory state of affairs beattributed, and not to any systematic oppression. It is the want ofthis, which renders it difficult for the Porte, now that the centralpower has been strengthened at the expense of the local, to take anydecided steps for improving the position of the Christians; all that itcan do is to place all upon a footing of legal equality, to encourageeducation, and to promote everything which shall have for its object thedevelopement of the natural resources of the country. 

[Footnote R: The 1st Corps d'Armée of the empire. ]

CHAPTER XV. 

 Excursion to Blato--Radobolya--Roman Road--Lichnitza--Subterraneous Passage--Duck-shooting--Roman Tombs--Coins and Curiosities--Boona--Old Bridge--Mulberry Trees--Blagai--Source of Boona River--Kiosk--Castle--Plain of Mostar--Legends--Silver Ore--Mineral Products of Bosnia--Landslip--Marbles--Rapids--Valley of the Drechnitza. 

The week following upon my return to Mostar was devoted to excursions todifferent spots in the vicinity of the town. In one instance thepleasure was enhanced by the anticipation of some duck-shooting; for, asthe event will show, the expectation was never realised. Our destinationwas Blato, a plain about nine miles distant, which all maps represent asa lake, but which does not deserve the name, as it is only floodedduring the winter months. The party consisted of M. Gyurcovich, theHungarian dragoman of the British consulate; the Russian Consul; hisdomestic, a serf strongly addicted to the use of ardent drinks, of whichhe had evidently partaken largely on the occasion in question; a Frenchdoctor, who had many stories of the Spanish war, in which he had served;two other individuals, and myself. 

About one hour from Mostar, we arrived at the source of the Radobolya, which flows through Mostar and falls into the Narenta near the oldbridge. The road was sufficiently well defined, although needing repairin places. The walls on either side, as well as its generalconstruction, proclaim its Roman origin. It was doubtless a part of thegreat main road from the east to Dalmatia. It is only at occasionalpoints that it is so easily discernible, but sufficient evidence existsto show that on quitting the Albanian mountains it passed Stolatz, crossed the bridge at Mostar, and continued thence by a somewhatcircuitous route to Spalatro. On emerging from the defile through whichwe had been marching, the plain of Blato lay extended before us, somenine or ten miles in length and four in breadth. The land, which must beextremely fertile, is cultivated in the spring, but only those cerealswhich are of the most rapid growth are produced; such as millet, Indiancorn, and broom seed, from which a coarse description of bread is made. The Lichnitza, which runs through it, is a mere stream. It takes itsrise near the Austro-Bosnian frontier, and loses itself in the hillswhich surround Blato. The plain is porous and full of holes, from which, in the late autumnal months, the waters bubble up. This continues untilthe river itself overflows, covering the entire plain to a considerabledepth, in some parts as much as thirty-six feet. The original passageunder the hills, by which the water escaped, is said to have beenfilled up at the time of the Turkish conquest. If such be true, it mightbe reopened with little cost and trouble, and the plain would thus berendered most valuable to the province. 

Arrived at the scene of operations, we lost little time in getting towork. A still evening, and a moon obscured by light clouds, promisedwell for sport; and we should doubtless have made a large bag hadordinary precautions been taken. These, however, were not deemednecessary by the majority of the party, who walked down in the open tothe river's edge, smoking and chattering as though they expected the'dilly-dills to come and be killed' merely for the asking. The result, Ineed not say, was our return almost empty-handed. Late in the evening weassembled round a large fire, to eat the dinner which our servants hadalready prepared; after which we courted sleep beneath the soothinginfluences of tales of love and war as related by our Æsculapian friend, who undeniably proved himself to have been a very Don Quixote. Early thefollowing morning we were again afoot, and a few partridges, hares, andquail rewarded our exertions. Amongst the hills, where most of the gamewas shot, I noticed several old Roman tombs. Many of these were merelylarge shapeless blocks of stone, while others were of the propersarcophagus form, ornamented with sculptures of considerable merit. Onsome were depicted men in armour, with shields and long straight swords, while others had two men with lances aimed at a deer between them. Theabsence of anything like moulding on the sides proves their greatantiquity. In its place we find a rather graceful pattern, vines withleaves and grapes predominating; or, as in other cases, choruses ofwomen holding hands and dancing. In no instance did I detect anythingdenoting immorality or low ideas, so prevalent in the sculptures ofintermediate ages. Amongst these tombs, as also on the sites of theancient towns, curiosities and coins are found. Of the last, smallHungarian silver pieces, and large Venetian gold pieces, are the mostnumerous; although Roman copper coins are by no means rare. Stonesengraved with figures of Socrates and Minerva were shown to me, ashaving been found in the province, and it is only two years since, thattwo golden ear-rings of fifteen drachms weight, and about the size ofpigeons' eggs, were dug up in the neighbourhood of Blato. About the sametime a ring was found, of which the Pacha obtained possession. It was ofiron, set with a stone only three tenths of an inch in diameter, onwhich were most beautifully engraved no fewer than nine figures ofclassical deities. 

The ensuing day I devoted to a double expedition to Boona and Blagai. The former of these is about six miles distant, on the plain fromMostar. It consists of a few houses built by the rebellious Ali Pacha, who was Vizier at the time of Sir Gardner Wilkinson's visit toHerzegovina. That functionary's villa, which is now the country-house ofthe British Consul, is a moderate-sized yellow house, with little torecommend it save its situation at the confluence of the Boona and theNarenta. The former is spanned by a large bridge of fourteen arches, upon one of which is a Turkish inscription, from which it appears thatit was repaired by the Turks in the year of the Hegira 1164--that is tosay, 113 years ago. 

The bridge is in all probability of Roman construction, though theTurkish habit of erasing all inscriptions, and substituting others inTurkish in their place, renders it impossible to fix precise dates. Nearthe villa stands a square house intended for the nurture of silk-worms, while a garden of 30, 000 mulberry trees shows that Ali Pacha hadpecuniary considerations in view as well as his domestic comfort. FromBoona to Blagai is about six miles, and here also is a bridge of fivearches across the Boona. Leaving the village, which stands on the banksof the river, we proceeded to its source. Pears, pomegranates, olives, and other fruit trees grow in great luxuriance, and two or three millsare worked by the rush of water, which is here considerable. The cavernfrom which the river pours in a dense volume, is about eight feet high, and situated at the foot of a precipitous cliff, under which stands akiosk, the abode of our fighting friend the Affghan Dervish. Thence weproceeded to the castle, which stands on the summit of a craggy height, overlooking the village on the one side, and the road to Nevresign onthe other. Speaking of this, Luccari says, 'Blagai stands on a rockabove the river Bosna, fortified by the ancient Voivodas of the countryto protect their treasure, as its name implies, Blagia (or Blago)signifying treasure. '[S]

It was governed by a Count, and the Counts of Blagai performed adistinguished part in the history of Herzegovina. Some of them, as theBoscenovich and the Hranich, are known for their misfortunes, havingbeen compelled to seek refuge in Ragusa at the time of the Turkishinvasion; and the last who governed 'the treasure city of Blagai' wasCount George, who fled to the Ragusan territory in 1465. [T] The view tothe southward over the plain country is extremely picturesque, but thisportion of the battlements are completely ruined. On the north side theyare in good preservation, and there wells exist, the cement of whichlooked as fresh as though it had been recently renovated. 

In one of the batteries a brass gun was lying, of about 9lbs. Calibre, with vent and muzzle uninjured. In the interior of the fort, shells ofdwelling-houses, distributed angularly, denote the part of the buildingwhich was devoted to domestic purposes. In these the woodwork of thewindows may still be seen, as well as stones projecting from the walls, on which the flooring of the upper stories must have rested. At the mainentrance an oak case is rivetted into the wall to receive the beam, which barred the door. At the foot of the hill is a ruined church, inwhich some large shells of about thirteen inches diameter were strewedabout. One of these was lying on the road side, as though it had beenrolled from the castle above. 

Having now seen all the lions of the neighbourhood, I bethought me ofleaving Mostar once more, but this time with the intention of workingnorthward. The ordinary route pursued by those whom business calls fromMostar to Bosna Serai is by Konitza, a village situated on the frontier, nearly due north of Mostar. To this course I at first inclined, but wasinduced to change my plans by the prospect of some chamois-hunting, inthe valley of the Drechnitza. Having laid in a supply of bread and othernecessaries, we, i. E. M. Gyurcovich and myself, made an early start, inhopes of reaching our destination on the same night. 

Following the right bank of the Narenta, our course lay for a short timethrough the northernmost of the two plains at whose junction Mostar issituated. These, from the smooth and round appearance of the stones, with which their surface is strewed, lead to the supposition that thisat one time was the bed of an important lake: this idea is confirmed bythe legends of the country, which affirm the existence of rings in thesides of the mountains, to which it is rumoured that boats were mooredof old. Whether this be true or not, the appearance of the place lendsprobability to the statement. 

Shortly after leaving the town, there is a small square tower close toand commanding the river, which is here fordable. As we proceededfarther north it becomes rocky and narrow, and some small rapids occurat intervals. The bad state of the roads, and the ill condition of ourbaggage horses, rendered it necessary to halt several hours short of thepoint which we had intended to reach that night. Having, therefore, cleared out an outhouse devoted in general to looms, green tobacco, hens, cats, and the like, we made our arrangements for passing thenight. While thus engaged a peasant brought me a tolerably largespecimen of silver ore, which he stated that he had found in the hillson the Bosnian frontier, where he assured me that any amount was to beobtained. His veracity I have no reason to doubt, although unable toproceed thither to confirm his statement by my own testimony. It iscertain, however, that the mountains of Bosnia are unusually rich inmineral products. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, copper, iron, coal, blackamber, and gypsum, are to be found in large quantities; silver being themost plentiful, whence the province has received the name of BosniaArgentina. The manifold resources of the country in this respect haveunfortunately been permitted to remain undeveloped under the Ottomanrule, while the laws laid down relative to mining matters are of such anature as to cripple foreign enterprise. In this proceeding, the Turkishgovernment has committed the error of adhering to the principles andcounsels of France, which is essentially a non-mining country. In threeplaces only has any endeavour been made to profit by the secret richesof the earth, viz. At Foinitza, Crescevo, and Stanmaidan, where ironworks have been established by private speculation. The iron is of goodquality, but the bad state of the roads, and the difficulty of procuringtransport, render it a far less remunerative undertaking than wouldotherwise be the case. Good wrought iron sells at three-halfpence thepound. Were a company formed under the auspices of the Britishgovernment, there is little doubt that they might be successfullyworked, since there is nothing in the nature of the country to renderthe construction of a road to the coast either a difficult or expensiveoperation. Continuing our course on the right bank of the Narenta, wearrived at a lofty mound, evidently of artificial construction, situatedat a bend of the river. Traces of recent digging were apparent, asthough search had been made for money or curiosities. It was just one ofthose positions where castles were built of yore, its proximity to theriver being no small consideration in those days of primitive defences. A short distance from its base were two tombstones, sculptured with morethan ordinary care and ability. One of these represented a man with along sword and shield, faced by a dog or fox, which was the only portionof the engraving at all effaced. 

At a spot where a spring issued from the rocks, we were met by a partyof Irregulars, shouting and firing their matchlocks in a very indecorousmanner. They were doubtless going their rounds, bent on plunder, as istheir wont; and living at free quarters. The place where we encounteredthem was wild in the extreme, and well adapted for deeds of violence. Itwas indeed only in the preceding spring, that a murder was committed onthat very spot. Nor was it the first murder that had been done there. Some years previously two Dalmatian robbers concealed themselves behindthe adjacent rocks, with the intention of murdering two Turks, who werecarrying money to Bosna Serai. These Turks, however, detected themovements of the assassins, and as one of the Christians fired, one ofthe Turks returned the shot, each killing his man. Sequel: the secondChristian ran away; the surviving Turk carried off his companion's moneyin addition to his own. 

At one part of our route a landslip of large dimensions had taken place, covering the slope to the river with large stones and blocks of redmarble. This, as well as white, black, and gray marble, are found inlarge quantities in the surrounding hills. The river at this point isturgid and rocky, and there are two or three rapids almost worthy of thename of falls. The narrow rocky ledge, which constitutes the onlytraversable road, immediately overhangs the water, having a sheerdescent on the right of nearly 200 feet. The edge of this precipice isovergrown with grass and shrubs to such a degree as to render it verydangerous. Indeed it nearly proved fatal to my horse and myself: thebank suddenly gave way, and but for the fortunate intervention of aprojecting ledge, which received the off fore and hind feet of theformer, we should inevitably have been picked up in very small pieces, if anyone had taken the trouble to look for us. 

Having now journeyed about ten hours from Mostar, our road wound to theleft, leaving the Narenta at its confluence with the Drechnitza, whichwaters the valley of the same name. Close to its mouth, which isspanned by a neat two-arched bridge, a Ban is said to have lived informer days; and a solitary rock projecting from the hills on the leftbank is pointed out as his favourite resort. The summit of this issmoothed off, and traces of an inscription still exist, but too muchdefaced to be deciphered. 

[Footnote S: Luccari. ]

[Footnote T: Gardner Wilkinson, vol. Ii. ]

CHAPTER XVI. 

 Wealthy Christians--German Encyclopædia--Feats of Skill--Legend of Petral--Chamois-hunting--Valley of Druga--Excavations--Country Carts--Plain of Duvno--Mahmoud Effendi--Old Tombs--Duvno--Fortress--Bosnian Frontier--Vidosa--Parish Priest--National Music--Livno--Franciscan Convent--Priestly Incivility--Illness--Quack Medicines--Hungarian Doctor--Military Ambulance--Bosna Serai--Osman Pacha--Popularity--Roads and Bridges--Mussulman Rising in Turkish Croatia--Energy of Osman Pacha. 

The family with whom we purposed spending the succeeding days werereputed to be the wealthiest of the Christians in that part of thecountry. It will perhaps convey a more correct impression of theirmeans, if we say that they were less poverty-stricken than others. A fewcows, some half-dozen acres of arable land, and a fair stock of poultry, constituted their claim to being considered millionaires. The householdconsisted, besides father and mother, of two rather pretty girls, twosons, and their cousin, who cultivated the land and hunted chamoisregularly every Sunday. Besides these there were some little boys, whoseonly occupation appeared to be to bring fire for the pipes of theirelders. Our arrival, and the prospect of a bye day after the chamois, threw all the men of the party into a state of great excitement. Minutewas the inspection of our guns, rifles, and revolvers, the latterreceiving much encomium. An old Turk, who had been summoned to take partin the morrow's excursion, eyed one of those for some time, and atlength delivered himself of the following sentiment: 'They say there isa devil: how can this be so, when men are so much more devilish?' I amafraid the salvation of Sir William Armstrong, Mr. Whitworth, &c. &c. , would be uncertain were they to be judged on the same grounds. Whilewaiting for our dinner of fowls made into soup and baked potatoes, thesons brought a book, which the priest, with more regard for preservinghis reputation for learning than veracity, had told them was a bad book. It proved to be a German Encyclopædia. On hearing this one remarked, 'Oh, then it will do for cigarettes. ' While regaling ourselves on wineand grapes, which one of the hospitable creatures had walked twelvemiles to procure, we received visits from the male population of thevillage, who, like all the people of the valley, are much addicted tochamois-hunting. Their conversation, indeed, had reference exclusivelyto sport, varied by a few feats of skill, hardly coming under the formername. One villager asserted positively that he had seen a man at Livnoshoot an egg off another's head. This was instantly capped by another, who affirmed that he had witnessed a similar feat at the same place. Hisstory ran thus: 'At the convent of Livno, all the Roman Catholic girlsof the district are married. On one occasion a young bride was receivingthe congratulations of her friends, when a feather which had beenfastened across her head became loosened, and waved around it. Abystander remarked that he would be a good shot who could carry away thefeather without injuring the head. The girl upon hearing this lookedround and said, "If you have the courage to fire, I will stand. " Uponwhich the bystander drew a pistol and shot away the truant feather. '

The valley of Drechnitza is wild and rocky, but sufficiently wooded topresent a pleasing aspect. The timber is in many places of large girth, and might easily be transported to the sea. It is invested also withmore than common interest by the primitive character of its people, andthe legends which associate it with the early history of the province. 

At present only four villages remain in the valley; that where our hostslived being the most ancient. They indeed spoke with pride of havingoccupied their present position since before the conquest, paying only anominal tribute of one piastre and a half until within the last thirtyyears, since which time their privileges have been rescinded. 

On the left bank of the Drechnitza, about half-way between itsconfluence with the Narenta and the house of our hosts, is a smallvalley named Petral; it derived its name from the followingcircumstances:--For seven years after the rest of Bosnia and theHerzegovina had been overrun by the Turks under Mehemet II. , the peopleof this valley maintained an unequal combat with the invaders. Thegallant little band were under the orders of one Peter, who lived in acastle on the summit of a height overlooking the plain; this plain couldonly be approached by two passes, one of which was believed to beunknown to the Turks. In an evil hour an old woman betrayed the secretof this pass, and Peter had the mortification one morning of lookingdown from his castle upon the armed Turkish legion, who had effected anentrance during the night. Like a true patriot, he sank down overcome bythe sight, and died in a fit of apoplexy; whence the valley has beencalled Petral to this day. 

A few ruins mark the spot where the church stood of yore, and fourtombstones are in tolerably good preservation. Beneath these repose theashes of a bishop and three monks; the date on one of them isA. D. 1400. 

Early the following morning we started for the bills, where the chamoiswere reported to be numerous. After about three hours' climbing over amass of large stones and rocks, the ascent became much more precipitous, trees and sand taking the place of the rocks. In course of time wereached a plateau, with an almost perpendicular fall on the one side, and a horizontal ridge of rock protruding from the mountain sidebeneath. Four of the party, which numbered eight guns in all, havingtaken up positions on this ridge, the remainder, with a posse of boys, made a flank movement with the view of taking the chamois in reverse. The shouting and firing which soon commenced showed us that they werealready driving them towards us from the opposite hills. The wood washere so thick that occasional glimpses only could be obtained of thechamois, as they came out into the open, throwing up their heads andsniffing the air as though to detect the danger which instinct told themwas approaching. Two or three of the graceful little animals blunderedoff, hard hit, the old Turk being the only one of the party whosucceeded in killing one outright. The bound which followed thedeath-wound caused it to fall down a precipice, at the bottom of whichit was found with its neck dislocated, and both horns broken short off. If the ascent was difficult, the descent was three-fold more so. Therocks being the great obstacle to our progress, the mountaineers managedwell enough, jumping from one to another with the agility of cats; butto those unaccustomed to the kind of work, repeated falls wereinevitable. How I should have got down I really cannot say, had I notintrusted myself to providence and the strong arm of one of those sonsof nature. 

The strong exercise which I had taken rendering me anything but disposedfor a repetition of the sport on the ensuing day, M. G. Left me on hisreturn journey to Mostar, while I proceeded on my solitary way. This, however, was not so cheerless as I had anticipated, as the two sons ofthe house expressed a wish to accompany me as far as Livno on theBosnian frontier, where their uncle, a village priest, held a cure. Forseveral hours we remained on the left bank of the Drechnitza, which weforded close to its source. On the heights upon our right, fame tells ofthe existence of a city, now no more; and it is certain that a goldenidol weighing 23 lbs. Was found in the locality. Buoyed up by hopes ofsimilar success, fresh gold-diggers had been recently at work, but withwhat result I am unable to say. 

Bearing away now to the W. We entered the valley of the Druga, a littlerocky stream. Two roads were reported practicable, the longer taking awinding course past Rachitna, the other, which I selected, being moredirect, but far more rocky and difficult; the ascent at one point wasmore severe than anything I ever recollect having seen. 

Leaving Druga we descended into the plain of Swynyatcha, a small openspace, which is again connected with Duvno by a pass. The hills on theleft of this pass are called Liep, those on the right Cesarussa. Here, too, report speaks of the existence of a city in former days, and thediscovery of a large hag of gold coins, like Venetian sequins, hasinduced some speculative spirit to commence excavations on a largescale. But these, I regret to say, have not as yet been attended withany success. A very fair road has been recently made through this pass, and the traffic which has resulted from it ought to convince the peopleof the utility of its construction. We met many ponies carryingmerchandise from Livno to Mostar, while long strings of carts drawn byeight bullocks were employed in carrying wood to the villages in theplain of Duvno. These carts are roughly built enough, but answer thepurpose for which they are intended, viz. Slow traffic in the plains. The axle-trees and linch-pins are made of wood, and indeed no iron atall is used in their construction. The plain of Duvno is one of thelargest in the province: its extreme length is about fifteen miles, andvillages are placed at the foot of the hills, round its entirecircumference. The most important of these is the seat of a Mudir, towhom I proceeded at once on my arrival. Although afflicted with ahump-back, he was a person of most refined manners. His brother-in-law, Mahmoud Effendi, who is a member of the Medjlis, was with him, and addedhis endeavours to those of the Mudir to render my stay at Duvnoagreeable. Having complimented the great man upon the appearance of hisMudirlik, he laughingly replied, 'Oh, yes, they must work because it isso cold'--a statement which I felt anything but disposed to question. The wind was blowing down the plain at the time in bitterly cold blasts, and I understand that such is always the case. The vegetation appearedgood, in spite of a seeming scarcity of water. 

The people of the district are nearly all Catholics, which may beattributed to its proximity to Dalmatia and the convents of Bosnia. Theyare orderly and well-behaved, according to the Mudir's account; but Ialso gathered from some Catholics to whom I spoke that this goodbehaviour results from fear more than love, as the few Turks have it alltheir own way. In the centre of the plain are some old tombs, some of asarcophagus shape, others merely rough flat stones, whilst here andthere interspersed may be seen some modern crosses--a strange admixtureof the present and the past. After a somewhat uncomfortable night in theone khan which the town possesses, I presented myself with early dawn atthe house of the Mudir. Although not yet 8 o'clock, I found him with thewhole Medjlis in conclave around him. Thence the entire partyaccompanied me to inspect the fort, or such part of it as had escapedthe ravages of time. It was rather amusing to see the abortive attemptsat climbing of some of these fur-coated, smoke-dried old Mussulmans, whocertainly did not all equal the Mudir in activity. The fort is aquadrilateral with bastions, and gates in each of the curtains; in twoof the bastions are eight old guns, dismounted: these are all of Turkishmanufacture, some having iron hoops round the muzzles. 

In the SW. Corner is a round tower, evidently copied from the Roman, ifnot of genuine Roman origin. For what purpose the fort was built, or bywhom, I was unable to learn. It is said, however, to have beenconstructed about two centuries ago[U], and there is a Turkishinscription on it to that effect; but, as I have said before, noreliance can be placed upon these. There are many buildings within thewalls, and one mosque is reputed to have existed a hundred years beforethe rest of the fort. 

Shortly after leaving the village we arrived at the frontier line ofBosnia and Herzegovina, which is, however, unmarked. Already the countrypresented a greener and more habitable appearance, which increased as wecontinued our journey. Towards evening we stopped at a little villagenamed Vidosa, where the uncle of my hunting companions held the post ofparish priest. Having sent one of his nephews in advance to warn him ofmy arrival, he was waiting to receive me, and invited me to stay at hishouse with great cordiality. Notwithstanding that the greater portion ofit had been destroyed by fire a few months previously, I was verycomfortably housed, and fully appreciated a clean bed after the rough'shakes down' to which I was accustomed. That the kitchen wasluxuriously stocked, I am not prepared to say; but the priest wasprofuse in his apologies for the absence of meat, proffering as anexcuse that Roman Catholics do not eat it on Friday, a reason whichwould scarcely hold good, as I arrived on a Saturday. Of eggs andvegetables, however, there was no lack. Vegetable diet and dog Latin arestrong provocatives of thirst, and the number of times that I wascompelled to say '_ad salutem_' in the course of the evening wasastonishing. The old priest appeared more accustomed to these copiouslibations than his younger assistant, who before he left the tableshowed unmistakable signs of being 'well on. ' Both vicar and curate woremoustachios, and the flat-topped red fez, which distinguishes theirprofession. The curate had received a certain amount of education at oneof the Bosnian convents, whence he had been sent to Rome, where he had, at any rate, attained a tolerable proficiency in Italian, and a fewwords of French. Another occupant of the house, who must not be allowedto go unmentioned, was the priest's mother, a charming old lady in herninety-seventh year. Age had in no way impaired her faculties, and shewas more active and bustling than many would be with half her weight ofyears. 

In the evening the nephews made their appearance, having dined with thedomestics. The remaining hours were devoted to singing, if such can betermed the monotonous drawl which constitutes the music of the country. In this one of the brothers was considered very proficient: the subjectsof the songs are generally legendary feats of Christians against theconquering Turks, which, however little they may have conduced to barthe progress of the invaders, sound remarkably well in verse. Sometimes, as in the present case, the voice is accompanied by the guesla, a kindof violin with one or three strings. 

The priest, although a man of small education and strong prejudices, appeared to be possessed of much good sense. He deplored the state ofthings in Herzegovina, and said that much misery would ensue from it, not only there, but in all the neighbouring provinces. As an instance ofthe severity of the government demands, he mentioned that 1, 400baggage-horses had been recently taken from the district of Livno alone, as well as more than 400 horse-loads of corn, for all of which promisesof payment only had been made. For the accuracy of his statements I amnot prepared to vouch, but I give them as they were given to me. He didnot, however, complain so much of the quantity, as of the injudiciousmode of proceeding, in making such large demands at one time. 

A few hours took me to the town of Livno, on the outskirts of which isthe Catholic convent. Mass was being performed at the time; but I foundthe Guardiano, 'Padre Lorenzo, ' and one of the Fratri disengaged. Afterkeeping me waiting for some time in a very cold vaulted room, these twocame to me, though their reception of me contrasted very unfavourablywith that of the simple village priest. The convent is for monks of theFranciscan order, of whom there were five besides the Superior. It is alarge, rambling, and incomplete building of white stone, and in no wayinteresting, having only been completed about six years. After mass camedinner, which was provided more with regard to quantity than quality, and at which the holy men acquitted themselves _à merveille_. Exceptinga young priest of delicate appearance and good education, the brethrenappeared a surly and ill-conditioned set. So ill-disguised was thediscontent conveyed in the ungracious 'sicuro' vouchsafed in reply to mypetition for a bed, that I ordered my traps to be conveyed forthwith tothe best khan in the town, and, having failed to find favour with theChristians, sought the aid of the Mussulman Kaimakan, from whom at anyrate my English blood and Omer Pacha's Buruhltee insured me advice andassistance. 

The Austrian Consul also received me with much civility, and mostobligingly placed his house at my disposal, although compelled to startfor Spolatro on business. For some reason best known to himself, hebegged of me to return to Mostar, insisting on the impracticability oftravelling in Bosnia in the present state of political feeling. This, coupled with the specimen of priestly civility which I had experiencedin the convent of Goritza, inclined me to alter the route which I hadproposed to myself by Foinitza to Bosna Serai. In lieu of this route, Iresolved upon visiting Travnik, the former capital of Bosnia, beforeproceeding to Bosna Serai (or Serayevo, as it is called in thevernacular), the present capital of the province. In fulfillment of thisplan, I started on the morning of the 21st, though suffering from feverand headache, which I attributed to a cold caught in the damp vaults ofthe Franciscan convent. With each successive day my illness became moreserious, and it was with difficulty that I could sit my horse during thelast day's journey before reaching Travnik. At one of the khans enroute, I put myself into the hands of the Khanjee, who with his femalehelpmate prescribed the following remedies:--He directed me to place myfeet in a basin of almost boiling tea, made out of some medicinal herbspeculiar to the country, the aroma from which was most objectionable. Hethen covered me with a waterproof sheet which I carried with me, and, when sufficiently cooked, lifted me into bed. Though slightly relievedby this treatment, the cure was anything but final; and on my arrival atTravnik I was far more dead than alive. There an Hungarian doctor, towhom I had letters of introduction, came to visit me, and prescribed afew simple remedies. One day I hazarded the remark that stimulants werewhat I most required; upon which the learned doctor observed, withproper gravity, that brandy would probably be the most efficaciousremedy, as he had often heard that English soldiers lived entirely onexciting drinks. Ill as I was, I could scarcely refrain from laughing atthe drollery of the idea. 

After a few days' stay at Travnik my medical adviser began, I fancy, todespair of my case; and on the same principle as doctors elsewhererecommend Madeira to hopeless cases of consumption, he advised me tocontinue my journey to Bosna Serai. The difficulty was to reach thatplace. Here, however, the Kaimakan came to my help, and volunteered tolet out on hire an hospital-cart belonging to the artillery. I acceptedhis offer, and after a few days' stay at Travnik set forward on myjourney to Bosna Serai. The carriage was a species of Indian dâk ghari, with side doors, but without a box-seat; it was drawn by artilleryhorses, ridden by two drivers, while a sergeant and gunner did escortduty. Fortunately the vehicle had springs, which must have sufferedconsiderably from the jolting which it underwent, although we onlyproceeded at a foot's pace. 

After three days' journey we reached Bosna Serai, where I was mostkindly received by Mr. Z. , the acting British Consul, and by M. M. , theFrench Consul, with whom I stayed during the three weeks that I wasconfined to my room by illness. 

Bosna Serai, or Serayevo, is probably the most European of all the largetowns of Turkey in Europe. It is not in the extent of the commerce whichprevails, nor in the civilisation of its inhabitants, that thispre-eminence shows itself; but in the cleanly and regular appearance ofits houses and streets, the condition of which last would do credit tomany a Frankish town. This happy state of things is mainly attributableto the energy and liberality of the present governor of Bosnia, OsmanPacha, who, notwithstanding his advanced years, has evinced the greatestdesire to promote the welfare of the people under his charge. In thenine months of his rule which had preceded my visit, he had constructedno less than ninety miles of road, repaired the five bridges which spanthe river within the limits of the town, and introduced other reformswhich do him honour, and have procured for him the gratitude andgoodwill of all classes of his people. The system which he hasintroduced for the construction of roads is at once effective andsimple. By himself making a small portion of road near the capital, hesucceeded in demonstrating to the country people the advantages whichwould result from the increased facility of traffic. By degrees thisfeeling spread itself over the province, and the villagers applythemselves, as soon as the crops are sown, to making new portions ofroad, which they are further bound to keep in repair. This is obviouslythe first and most indispensable step in the developement of theresources of the country. It would be well for the Sultan were hepossessed of a few more employés as energetic, able, and honest as OsmanPacha. 

I regretted that the rapidity of his movements prevented my taking leaveof him and his intelligent secretary. But, a few nights before mydeparture, an express arrived bringing intelligence of a rising inTurkish Croatia, near Banialuka. The news arrived at 9 P. M. , and the energetic Pacha was on the road to the scene of the disturbanceby 6 A. M. The following morning. The émeute proved trifling;not being, as was at first reported, a Christian insurrection, but amere ebullition of feeling on the part of the Mussulmans of thatdistrict, who are the most poverty-stricken of all the inhabitants ofthe province. 

[Footnote U: This can scarcely be correct, as everything implies fargreater antiquity. ]

CHAPTER XVII. 

 Svornik--Banialuka--New Road--Sport--Hot Springs--Ekshesoo--Mineral Waters--Celebrated Springs--Goitre--The Bosna--Trout-fishing--Tzenitza--Zaptiehs--Maglai--Khans--Frozen Roads--Brod--The Save--Austrian Sentry--Steamer on the Save--Gradiska--Cenovatz--La lingua di tré Regni--Culpa River--Sissek--Croatian Hotel--Carlstadt Silk--Railway to Trieste--Moravian Iron--Concentration of Austrian Troops--Probable Policy--Water-Mills--Semlin--Belgrade. 

The shortening days, and the snow, which might now be seen in patches onthe mountain sides, warned us of approaching winter, and the necessityfor making a start in order to ensure my reaching Constantinople beforethe Danube navigation should be closed. My illness and othercircumstances had combined to detain me later than I had at firstintended, and I was consequently compelled to abandon the idea ofvisiting either Svornik or Banialuka, two of the largest and mostimportant towns in the province. The former of these places isinteresting as being considered the key of Bosnia, in a military pointof view; the latter, from the numerous remains, which speak eloquentlyof its former importance. The navigation of the Save, too, havingbecome practicable since the heavy rains had set in, I resolved uponthe simplest route of reaching Belgrade, viz. , that by Brod. In comingto this decision, I was influenced also by my desire to see the valleyof the Bosna, in and above which the road lies for almost the wholedistance. No site could have been more judiciously chosen, than that inwhich Serayevo is built. Surrounded by beautiful hills and meadows, which even in November bore traces of the luxuriant greenness whichcharacterises the province, and watered by the limpid stream of theMigliaska, its appearance is most pleasing. As we rattled down the mainstreet at a smart trot on the morning of the 16th November, in thecarriage of Mr. H. , the British Consul, it was difficult to believeoneself in a Turkish city. The houses, even though in most cases builtof wood, are in good repair; and the trellis-work marking the feminineapartments, and behind which a pair of bright eyes may occasionally beseen, materially heightens the charms of imagination. The road for thefirst six miles was hard and good. It is a specimen of Osman Pacha'shandiwork, and is raised considerably above the surrounding fields, thesides of the road being rivetted, as it were, with wattles. At the endof that distance, and very near the confluence of the Migliaska and theBosna, I separated from my friends, who were bent on a day's shooting. From the number of shots which reached my ear as I pursued my solitaryjourney, I should imagine that they must have had a successful day. Thelove of sport is strongly developed in the people of these provinces, and nature has provided them with ample means of gratifying theirinclination. Besides bears, wolves, boars, foxes, roebucks, chamois, hares, and ermines, all of which are plentiful in parts of the country, birds of all kinds abound; grey and red-legged partridges, blackcock, ducks of various kinds, quail, and snipe, are the most common; whileflights of geese and cranes pass in the spring and autumn, but onlydescend in spring. Swans and pelicans are also birds of passage, andoccasionally visit these unknown lands. The natives are clever intrapping these animals. This they do either by means of pitfalls or bylarge traps, made after the fashion of ordinary rat-traps. 

Before continuing my journey, I visited the hot springs, which rise fromthe earth at a stone's throw from the main road. Baths were built overthem by Omer Pacha, on the occasion of his last visit to Bosnia, for thebenefit of the sick soldiers, and such others as chose to use them. Besides two or three larger baths, there are several intended for oneperson, each being provided with a kind of cell, as a dressing room. Thewaters are considered most efficacious in all cases of cutaneousdiseases, and were at one time in great request for every kind ofdisorder, real and imaginary. From what I could gather from the'Custos, ' I should say that they are now but little frequented. Leavingthe Migliaska, which is here spanned by a solid bridge of ten arches, wecrossed the Bosna in about half an hour. Scattered along the river bank, or in some sheltered nook, protected by large trees alike from the heatand the eyes of curious observers, might be seen the harems of variouspachas, and other grandees connected with the province. After four hoursfarther march, we arrived at Ekshesoo, where 1 located myself in thekhan for the night. My first step was to send for a jug of the mineralwater, for which the village is famous, and at one period of the yearvery fashionable. The water has a strong taste of iron, and when freshdrawn, effervesces on being mixed with sugar, wine, or other acids. Itis in great repute with all classes, but the Jews are the most addictedto its use. No Hebrew in Serayevo would venture to allow a year toelapse without a visit to the springs; they generally remain there fortwo or three days, and during that time drink at stated hours gallonafter gallon of the medicated fluid. The following night I arrived atBoosovatz, where I left the Travnik road, which I had been retracing upto that point. The water of the Bosna is here beautifully transparent;and at about an hour's distance is a spring, the water of which isconsidered the best in Bosnia. The Pacha has it brought in all the wayto Serayevo, yet, notwithstanding this, I saw many persons in thevillage suffering from goitre, a by no means uncommon complaint inBosnia. The cause for the prevalence of this affliction is difficult tounderstand, unless we attribute it to the use of the river water, whichis at times much swollen by the melting snow. 

10th November: rain fell in torrents, much to my disgust, as the scenerywas very beautiful. The road, which is a portion of the old roadconstructed by Omer Pacha, skirts the banks of the river, which windssometimes amongst steep wooded hills, at others in the smooth greenplains. At one point we were obliged to ford it; the stream was ratherdeep and rapid, and I certainly experienced a sensation of relief when Isaw my baggage pony fairly landed on the opposite bank, without furtherinjury to his load than a slight immersion. The fishing of the Bosna isnot so good as that of the Narento and some other rivers of Bosnia andHerzegovina. Let me not be accused of a partiality for travellers'tales, when I say that trout of 60 lbs. Have been killed in the latterprovince. In external colour these are veritable trout, the flesh, however, having a yellowish appearance, something between the colour oftrout and salmon; the smaller fish are of excellent quality and arevery abundant. Three hours after leaving Boosovatz we reached Tzenitza, a small town where a little trade is carried on. While sitting in thepublic room of the khan, the post from Brod arrived en route to BosnaSerai. The man who carried it came in wet and mud-bespattered, anddeclared the road to be quite impassable; a bit of self-glorificationwhich I took for what it was worth. Had I not been pressed for time Ishould have myself been inclined to give way to the importunities of allconcerned, to postpone my journey to Vranduk until the following day;but seeing no prospect of any improvement in the weather, I deemed itprudent to push on. 

Another difficulty, however, here presented itself. The Tchouch ofZaptiehs positively declined to give me a guide; and it was only bysending for the Mudir, and threatening to write a complaint to theSerdar Ekrem, that I succeeded in obtaining one. This escort duty is theprincipal work of the mounted Zaptiehs. Ten piastres a day, or twentypence, is what is usually paid them by those who make use of theirservices. They, of course, pay for the keep of their own horses out oftheir regular official salary. The rain now gave place to snow, whichfell in considerable quantities for two or three days. The cold wasintense, and it was only by halting at every khan, generally about threehours apart, that it was possible to keep the blood in circulation. Onthe morning of the 20th the sun shone out bright and comparatively warm, although everything bore a most wintry aspect. Beautiful as the scenerymust be when spring has clothed the trees with green, or when the earlyautumnal tints have succeeded the fierce heat of summer, the appearanceof the country clad in its snowy garments might well compare with eitherof these. The hills, rugged in parts, and opening out at intervals intolarge open plains, trees and shrubs groaning with their milk-whiteburden, or sparkling like frosted silver in the moonlight, and above allthe river, now yellow and swollen, rushing rapidly along, produced aneffect characteristic and grand. 

About ninety miles from Serayevo the river becomes much broader, andswollen as it was by the recent rain and snow, presented a very fineappearance. 

On its right bank stands the town of Maglai, which is prettily situatedin the side of a basin formed by the hills, a craggy eminence apparentlydividing the town into two parts. Behind these, however, the housesmeet, sloping down close to the river's edge. On the very summit of thecentral mound is an old fort mounting five guns, which command theriver, but would otherwise be of little use. The only means ofcommunication between either bank, is a ferry-boat of rude construction. After leaving this town there still remained four hours of my journeyto be accomplished, before arriving at Schevaleekhan, where I intendedpassing the night. Unaccustomed as I was to anything like luxury, I waspositively staggered at the total absence of even the commonestnecessaries of life. At Maglai I had endeavoured without success to buypotatoes, fruit, and even meat; but here neither bread, eggs, norchickens, which are nearly always procurable, were to be found. Havingreceived the inevitable 'Nehmur' to every one of my demands, I could nothelp asking what the inhabitants themselves eat; and being told thatthey lived upon vegetables, asked for the same. Judge, then, of myastonishment when told that there were none. Fortunately my kind friendsat Bosna Serai had not sent me away empty-handed, or assuredly I shouldhave felt the pangs of hunger that day. 

At all times a khan is a painful mockery of the word hotel, as it isoften translated. Picture to yourself a room about eight feet square, with windows not made to open, a stove which fills one-third of theentire space, and a wooden divan occupying the other two-thirds; thewhole peopled by innumerable specimens of the insect creation, and youhave a very fair idea of an ordinary khan. If there be a moment when oneis justified in the indulgence of a few epicurean ideas, it is wheninhabiting one of these abodes of bliss. 

About an hour from Schevaleekhan we crossed an arm of the Bosna by meansof a ferry-boat; a little farther on the left bank stands a town of 300houses, built very much after the same principle as Maglai. Like thatplace it has an eminence, around which the houses cluster. This is alsosurmounted by a fort with three guns, two small and one large. The Mudirtold me with no little satisfaction that it was the last place taken bythe Turks, when they conquered Bosnia. Profiting by my experience of theprevious day, I took the precaution of buying a chicken, some bread, anda few more edibles, on my way through the town. Provisions were, however, both scarce and execrable in quality. Meat is indeed rarely tobe obtained anywhere, as sheep are never killed, and bullocks only whensuperannuated and deemed unfit for further physical labour. Chickens areconsequently almost the only animal food known. The method of killingthem is peculiar. The children of the house are generally selected forthis office. One secures a very scraggy fowl, while another arms himselfwith a hatchet of such formidable dimensions as to recall in thebeholder all sorts of unpleasant reminiscences about Lady Jane Grey, Mauger, and other historic characters. The struggling bird is thenbeheaded, and stripped of his plumage almost before his pulses haveceased to beat. The first occasion on which I saw one of theseexecutions, I could not help thinking of a certain cicerone at Rome, who, albeit that he spoke very good French and Italian, always broke outin English when he saw a picture of a martyrdom of any kind soever;'That one very good man, cut his head off. ' The man had but one idea ofdeath, and the same may be said of these primitive people, who look upondecapitation as the easiest termination to a half-starved life. 

Leaving Kotauski, where I passed the night of the 21st, at 7A. M. , I reached Brod at 8. 30 in the evening. The distance isconsiderable, but might have been accomplished in a far shorter time, had not the country been one sheet of ice, which rendered progressionboth difficult and dangerous. Each person of whom I enquired thedistance told me more than the one before, until I thought that aBosnian 'saht' (hour) was a more inexplicable measure than a German'stunde' or a Scottish 'mile and a bittoch. ' At length, however, thelights of Brod proclaimed our approach to the Turkish town of that name. On the left bank of the Save stands Austrian Brod, which, like all theSlavonic towns near the river, is thoroughly Turkish in character. Lateas it was, I hoped to cross the river the same night, and proceededstraight to the Mudir, who raised no objections, and procured men toferry me across. But we had scarcely left the shore when we werechallenged by the Austrian sentry on the other side. As the garrisonsof all the towns on the frontier are composed of Grenzer regiments, orconfinarii, whose native dialect is Illyric, a most animated discussiontook place between the sentry on the one hand, and the whole of mysuite, which had increased considerably since my arrival in the town. Myservant Eugene, who had been educated for a priest, and could talkpretty well, tried every species of argument, but without success; thesoldier evidently had the best of it, and clenched the question with themost unanswerable argument--that we were quite at liberty to cross if weliked; but that he should fire into us as soon as we came into goodview. There was therefore no help for it, and unwillingly enough, Ireturned to a khan, and crossed over early the following morning. At hisoffices, close to the river, I found M. M. , le Directeur de laQuarantine, and general manager of all the other departments. Heaccompanied me to the hotel, which, though not exactly first-rate, appeared luxurious after my three months of khans and tents. I wassomewhat taken aback at finding that the steamer to Belgrade was not duefor two days, and moreover that the fogs had been so dense that it hadnot yet passed up on its voyage to Sissek; whence it would return toBelgrade, calling at Brod, and other places en route. 

It therefore appeared the better plan to go up in it to Sissek, than toawait its return to Brod. By this means I was enabled to see many of thetowns and villages on the Bosnian, Slavonian, and Croatian frontiers. Leaving my servant and horses at Brod, I went on board the steamer assoon as it arrived. The scene I there found was curious. In a smallsaloon, of which the windows were all shut, and the immense stovelighted, were about thirty persons, three or four of whom were females, the remainder merchants and Austrian officers. The atmosphere was sooppressive that I applied for a private cabin, a luxury which is paidfor, in all German companies, over and above the regular fare. I wastold that I might have one for eleven florins a night. To this Idemurred, but was told that any reduction was impossible; it was thetariff. At length the inspector came on board; to him I appealed, andreceived the same answer. After a little conversation, he agreed tobreak through a rule. I might have it for seven florins. No! well, hewould take the five which I had originally offered; and so I got mycabin. That it was the nicest little room possible, I must admit, withits two large windows, a maple table, a large mirror, and carpetedfloor; and a very much pleasanter resting-place than the hot saloon. Thenight was rainy and dark, and we lay-to throughout the greater part ofit, as is the invariable rule on the Save, and even on the Danubeduring the autumn months. At eight on the following morning we touchedat Gradiska. There are two towns of the name, the old one standing closeto the river, and embellished with a dilapidated castle; the new townbeing about an hour's distance inland. 

About noon we reached Cenovatz, which, like the other towns and villageson the frontier, might be mistaken rather for a Turkish than a Germantown. 

The Castle of Cenovatz is an irregular quadrilateral, with three roundand one square tower at the angles. It is now occupied by priests. It isinteresting from its connection with the military history of thecountry. There, on a tongue of land which projects into the river, wavedthe flag of France during the occupation of the Illyrian provinces bythe old Napoleon, while on the main land on either side the sentinels ofAustria and Turkey were posted in close juxtaposition. Hence it hasreceived the name of "la lingua di tré regni. "

At six o'clock the same evening we entered the River Cūlpa, at the mouthof which is the town of Sissek. 

It has a thrifty and cleanly appearance, and possesses two very fairinns. The saloon of one of these appeared to be the rendezvous of theopulent townspeople. Music, chess, billiards, and tobacco-smoke, appeared to be the amusements most in vogue; the indulgence in thelatter being of course universal. Here I took leave of my companions ofthe steamer, whose loss I much regretted, especially M. Burgstaller, agentleman of much intelligence, who requested me to examine his silk, manufactured at Carlstadt, for the International Exhibition. On theensuing morning, I crossed the Cūlpa, and inspected the works connectedwith the new railway to Trieste. It is intended to be in a state ofcompletion by the end of the coming autumn. Several Englishmen areemployed on the line, but I did not happen to come across any of them;every information was, however, given me by a Croatian gentleman, whohas the superintendence of one-half of the line. Moravian iron is usedin preference to English, although its value on delivery is said to bethe greater of the two. 

Sissek was in ancient days a place of no small importance. There, Attilaput in to winter his fleet during one of his onslaughts on the decayingRoman empire. Traces of the ancient city are often dug up, and manycuriosities have been found, which would delight the heart of the modernantiquarian. The return voyage to Brod was not remarkable for anystrange incident, the passengers being almost entirely Austrianofficers. The number of troops massed by that power on her Slavonian andCroatian frontier would infer that she entertains no friendly feelingsto her Turkish neighbours. These amount to no less than 40, 000 men, dispersed among the villages in the vicinity of Brod, and within acircumference of fourteen miles. At Brod itself no fewer than 4, 000baggage-horses were held in readiness to take the field at any moment. It requires no preternatural foresight to guess the destination of thesetroops. They are not intended, as some suppose, to hold in check thefree-thinking Slavonic subjects of Austria. Nor is that province used asa penal settlement for the disaffected, as others would infer. The wholehistory of Austria points to the real object with which they have beenaccumulated, viz. To be in readiness to obtain a footing in Bosnia, inthe event of any insurrection in that province of sufficient importanceto justify such a measure. The utility of such a step would bequestionable, as climate and exposure have more than once compelled theAustrians to relinquish the idea, even after they had obtained asubstantial footing in the province. The motives which would induce themto make another attempt are palpable enough; for, besides the advantagesderivable from the possession of so beautiful and rich a country, Austria sees with alarm the increase of revolutionary principles in aprovince in such close proximity to her own. And yet she has smallreason for fear, since no single bond of union exists between theSlaves on either bank of the Save. 

But even if this were not the case, surely her soundest policy would beto support and strengthen in every way the Turkish Government, sincetheir interests are identical, viz. The preservation of order among theSlavish nations of the world. 

After leaving Brod, the banks of the river become flat anduninteresting; that on the Bosnian side is to a certain extent coveredwith low brushwood. After passing the Drina, which forms the boundarybetween Bosnia and Servia, it becomes still less interesting; the onlyobjects of attraction being the numerous mills with which the river isstudded. On the morning of the 29th we moored off the wharf at Semlin, but just too late to enable me to cross over to Belgrade by themorning's steamer. During the day, which I was compelled to pass in thetown, I received much attention from General Phillipovich, who commandedthe garrison, to whom I tender my sincere thanks. In the evening Icrossed over to Belgrade (the white city), the capital of theprincipality of Servia. 

SERVIA:

ITS SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND FINANCIAL CONDITION. 

CHAPTER I. 

The erroneous notions prevalent throughout Europe relative to theinternal condition of Servia, are mainly traceable to two causes. Thefirst of these is the wilful misrepresentation of facts by governmentsto their subjects, while the other, and a far more universal one, is theindifference inherent in flourishing countries for such as are lesssuccessful, or which have not been brought into prominence bycontemporaneous events. We English are operated upon by the last ofthese influences. We are contented to accept the meagre accounts whichhave as yet reached us, and which give a very one-sided impression, asis but natural, the whole of the materials having been collected atBelgrade. I am not aware that anyone has during the past few yearswritten upon the subject; and having been at some pains to obtain themeans of forming a just estimate of the character and condition of theServian people, I must fain confess to very different ideas concerningthem to those which I had previously entertained, based upon the perusalof Ranke and Von Engel, or the lighter pages of Cyprien Robert andPaton. 

The retrograde movement, but too apparent, gives cause for seriousregret, not only to those who are politically interested in thewell-being of the country, but to all who desire to see an advancedstate of civilisation and a high moral standard amongst a people whopride themselves on the universality of Christianity within theirlimits. 

The present population is about one million, and is said to beincreasing at the rate of ten per cent. , but so crudely compiled are thestatistics, that doubts may be entertained of the accuracy of thisstatement. Of this million of souls, 200, 000 at the lowest estimate areforeigners; the greater portion being Austrian subjects, and thechildren of those Servians who on three separate occasions migrated tothe northern banks of the Danube. What has induced them to return totheir ancestral shores, whether it be Austrian oppression, or anunlooked-for patriotism, it is hard to say; but whatever the motives, they have not proved of sufficient strength to awaken the dormant apathyinherited with their Slavish blood. Save those who have settled atBelgrade, and who drive a most lucrative and usurious trade, they havesunk back contentedly to a level with the rest of their compatriots. 

The scanty population is only one of the many signs of the decadence ofa country for whose future such high hopes were entertained, and whosename is even now blazoned forth as a watchword to the Christians ofTurkey. In reality, a comparison with most Turkish provinces, and moreespecially with those in which the Mussulman element predominates, willtell very favourably for the latter. Roumelia, for example, with asmaller area, contains a larger population, produces more than doublethe revenue, while land is four times as valuable, the surest test ofthe prosperity of a country. This last is easily accounted for by thelamentable indolence of the masses, who are contented to live in themost abject poverty, neglecting even to take advantage of a naturallyfertile soil. Yet must it not be supposed that indifference to itspossession prompts this contempt for the cultivation of land. There isprobably no province so much enclosed, and where the mania forlitigation in connection therewith is so rife as Servia. Aninsurmountable obstacle is thus thrown in the way of foreign enterprise, by the narrow-mindedness of the people. 

The same want of energy has had the most baneful effect upon commerce, the very existence of which is merely nominal. Even at Belgrade thecommon necessaries of life are daily imported from the Austrian banks ofthe Danube. No one is more alive to the deplorable state of affairs thanthe reigning Prince, whose long residence in the capitals of Europe hasfamiliarised him with their bustling scenes of thriving activity. Wellwill it be for Servia and himself, if he shall turn the experience whichhe has acquired to some practical account. Any doubts which he maypreviously have entertained regarding the misery of the country, and themoral degradation of his subjects, were removed effectually by all thathe witnessed in a recent expedition into the interior--miserable hovels, uncultivated fields, magnificent forests wantonly destroyed, were thesights which met him at every turn. At length some restrictions havebeen placed on the wilful abuse of the greatest source of wealth whichthe country possesses. Nor are they premature, for the recklessdestruction of the forests, combined with a failure of the acorns duringthe past year, produced serious distress. Already has the export tradeof pigs diminished by one-third of the average of former years. This isimmediately owing to the necessity of feeding them on Indian corn, aprocess which proves too expensive for their poverty-stricken owners, and which in this respect places the pig and its proprietor upon anequality. The latter live almost entirely upon maize and sliegovich, akind of rakee made out of plums, and extremely fiery. 

The mode of treatment of their women, an infallible sign of civilisationor the reverse, was brought prominently to the Prince's notice by thefollowing circumstance:--Having, in company with the Princess, visitedthe cottage of a thriving pig-owner, he observed the presence of threedaughters of the house. These young ladies showed unmistakeable signs ofapproaching old-maidism, and the parental philosophy settled thequestion of their future pretty conclusively. 'Why, ' said he, in replyto a question put by the Prince touching the solitary condition of thedamsels, 'should I allow them to marry, when each of them is worth morethan three fat pigs to me. ' Manners must have changed very much for theworse since the days of Ami Boué, or it is difficult to conceive uponwhat he founds his assertion that labour is not imposed upon Servianwomen. Indeed it would be surprising were it not so, when they aresubjected by the laws of the land to the indignity of the bastinado, from which even men, save soldiers, are exempted in Mahometan Turkey. 

The absence of that blind subjection to a bigoted priesthood whichdistinguishes the other Christian populations, would seem to indicate acertain independence of spirit, but unhappily the accompanying symptomsare not so encouraging. With contempt for its ministers, has comedisregard for the ordinances of the Church, the services of which arebut scantily attended. Yet notwithstanding the irreligion which isspreading fast throughout the land, little tolerance is shown foradherents to other than the Greek Church. For example, Catholics arecompelled to close their shops on the Greek feasts, of which there arenot a few, under penalty of a fine. In the same liberal spirit the mobare permitted to break the windows of such houses as are not illuminatedon these occasions. 

An ignorant and narrow-minded man is generally also vain. The same lawis equally applicable to nations. A fancied superiority over theChristians of the other Turkish provinces cannot escape the notice ofthe most casual observer. That Servia has acquired some fame formilitary exploits is true, and far be it from me to detract from thepraise due to her efforts to achieve and maintain her independence. Thesuccesses of their fathers, however, over the small irregular Turkishlevies to which they were opposed, do not warrant the present populationin indulging in the vapid boastings too often heard, of their ability todrive the Turks to Constantinople, were they permitted so to do. In aword, they forget that they owe their present position, not to their ownprowess, but to foreign intervention; without which the province wouldprobably have shared the fate of Bosnia, Albania, Epirus, and thePashaliks of Rutschuk and Widdin, all which were as independent asthemselves, but were reconquered by the Turks, no European power havingextended to them the safeguard of a guarantee. 

Whether the protection accorded to Servia has worked beneficially is formy readers to judge. The abstract question of the advantages thusconferred admits of debate, and for my own part I believe the presentmiserable state of the province to be mainly owing to the Europeanguarantee. She was not sufficiently enlightened to profit by theadvantages presented to her, and the honourable self-reliance which wasthe result of a successful resistance to the Turkish arms has givenplace to a feeling of indolent security. Nor is this the worst. Aprincipal feature in a country under guarantee is the total want ofresponsibility in those vested with administrative power. Upon this theServian rulers presume to a preeminent degree, and indulge in many actsof presumption which would be impossible were they not fully alive tothe fact that the conflicting interests of the guaranteeing powers, added to their own insignificance (which perhaps they overlook), exemptthem from any fear of chastisement. 

The principle of supporting the independence of a province forming acomponent geographical part of an empire, must have but one result, thatof weakening the mother state, without, as experience has shown, ameliorating the condition of the province. Independently, therefore, ofthe drain upon the Turkish finances, for the maintenance of troops fromtime to time on the Servian frontier, to counteract revolutionarypropaganda, her influence throughout her Slavish provinces is muchweakened. Although in a position as anomalous as it must be unpalatable, the Ottoman Government deserves credit for abstaining so entirely fromany species of interference in the internal affairs of the country; forbe it remembered that the province is still tributary to the Porte. Thehattischeriff of 1834, by which, on the evacuation of the country, theSultan retained the right of garrisoning the fortresses, has never beenstrictly adhered to, and may at some future period lead tocomplications. Belgrade is secure from any efforts which may be madeagainst it, but the other forts are hardly worthy of the name, and wereonly used as a place of refuge in case of attack. The Servians nowcomplain of the infringement of the hattischeriff, and M. Garaschaninhas but lately returned from Constantinople, whither he was sent on aspecial mission in connection with this subject. He endeavoured toprocure an order for the withdrawal of all Mussulmans from the villageswhich they now occupy in the vicinity of the forts. This demand wouldappear just in the letter of the law, but for the neglect on the partof the Servian Government of one of the conditions, which was, thatbefore resigning their property, the Mussulmans should receive anequivalent in money. The payment of this has been evaded, and the Porteconsequently declines to interfere in the matter; should the Sultanhereafter accede to the demand, it would be no great sacrifice, as hewould still retain Belgrade. Situated as that fortress is, at theconfluence of the Danube and the Save, surrounded with strong andwell-ordered fortifications, and commanding every quarter of the town, its occupation in the event of hostilities would at once determine thefate of the province. 

The city may be fairly said to represent the sum of civilisation in thecountry. In addition to 2, 000 Austrian subjects, the population is of avery polyglot character, who, however much they may have added to theimportance, have deprived the town of its national appearance. 

CHAPTER II. 

Before alluding to the financial or military resources, it will be wellto pass in brief review the events of the past few years, of which nochronicle exists. These, if devoid of any special interest, tendconsiderably to our enlightenment regarding the much vexed question of asouth Slavonic kingdom, and at the same time of Russia's prospects ofaggrandisement south of the Danube. The neutral attitude preserved byServia during the war in 1854-55, must have been a grievousdisappointment to the Emperor Nicholas. Had she risen consentaneouslywith the irruption of the Hellenic bands into Thessaly and Epirus, therevolt might have become general, and would have been fraught withconsequences most perplexing to the Sultan's allies. This neutrality maybe attributed to the position assumed by Austria throughout thatstruggle, combined with the independence of Russian influence manifestedby the then reigning family of Servia. No sooner was peace declared, than Russia applied herself to the task of producing a state of feelingmore favourable to herself in the Slavonic provinces. While adhering toher traditional policy of fomenting discord, and exciting pettydisturbances with the view of disorganising and impeding theconsolidation of Turkey, she redoubled her efforts to promote her owninfluence by alienating the Greek Christians from their spiritualallegiance to the Archimandrite, and transferring it to the Czar. Nor toattain this end did she scruple to resort to presents, bribes, and evenmore unworthy means. That her efforts have not met with more signalsuccess than has as yet attended them, is due to the indifferencedisplayed by the people on these subjects. 

One measure which was deemed most important was the substitution inServia of the Obrenovitch family for that of Kara George. This occurredin 1858; and during the lifetime of Milneh, Russian influence was everin the ascendant. The familiar roughness of tone and manner assumed bythat Prince towards his uncultivated people procured for him greatweight; while his astute cunning, his hatred of Turkey, and his Russianbias, would have given a most valuable ally to that power, had sheprocured his restoration before her armies crossed the Pruth. Fortunately no opportunity presented itself for him to promote activelythe cause of his imperial master; and the two years which he survivedhis return to power are marked only by occasional ill-judged andbloodthirsty emeutes, as prejudicial to his people as they wereineffectual in overthrowing Turkish supremacy. 

The eastern policy of France, during the Italian war, was subjected tomany powerful conflicting influences. The chances of creating adiversion in the rear of Austria, owing to the unsettled state of theTurkish provinces, was probably thought of. Why the idea was abandonedis not for us here to enquire; but it may be in part attributed to thedisplay of force which Turkey for once put forth at the right moment. Bethis as it may, no disturbance took place until the winter of 1859, when, upon the withdrawal of the Turkish troops, fresh rumours of aninsurrectionary nature were heard. These are well known to have beenencouraged and circulated by the Servian Government, which calculatedupon foreign support, at any rate that of Russia. But Russia has no wishto precipitate a crisis. The disastrous results of Prince Gortschakoff'smission have, at any rate, taught her the impolicy of plucking at thefruit before it is ripe. Her own internal reorganisation, moreover, occupies her sufficiently, and renders any active interference for themoment impracticable. Even were it otherwise, were Russia able andwilling to renew the struggle in behalf of her co-religionists, thereport of Prince Dolgorouki as to the amount of assistance likely to bederived from them, would hardly tend to encourage her in herdisinterested undertaking. This envoy arrived at Belgrade in the latterpart of 1859, while Prince Gortschakoff's charges were issued shortlyafter his return, and were doubtless based upon his reports. (Yet it ismore than probable that the primary object of his mission was to enquireinto and to regulate the revolutionary movements, which at that momenthad acquired a certain degree of importance. ) The Bulgarian emissariestold him frankly that no rising could be looked for in those provinces, unless Russia took the initiative. They reminded him that in 1842, whenBaron Lieven visited Belgrade, the Bulgarians were induced by thepromises of Prince Michael Obrenovitch to rise en masse. These promiseswere never fulfilled, and the insurrection was put down with greatbarbarities by the neighbouring Albanian levies. This single fact istolerably conclusive as to the unreality of a south Slavonicinsurrection, of which so much has been said, and to promote which somuch trouble has been taken. Even were the discontent tenfold asdeep-rooted as it now is, the Turkish Government might rely on theMussulman population and the Arnauts to suppress any rising of theChristians. The chief danger to Turkey lies in the truculent nature ofthose whom she would be compelled to let loose upon the insurgents, andwho would commit excesses which might be made an excuse for foreignintervention. The attainment of this ignoble end has been and still isthe policy pursued by more than one power. Prince Milosch playedadmirably into their hands, not foreseeing that in the generalbouleversement which would be the result, the independence of Serviamight be disregarded. The invasion of the Bosnian frontier by bands ofServian ruffians was a measure well calculated to arouse the fury of theMussulmans; and if such has not been the case, it may be attributed tothe rapid dispersion of the miscreants. Little credit, indeed, accruedto Servia in these hostile demonstrations, for while the bands werecomposed of the lowest characters, and could only be brought together bypayment, they quickly retreated across the frontier at the first show ofresistance. It is significant that these bands were in nearly all casesled by Montenegrins, a fact which indicates the decline of that spiritof military adventure to which the Haiduks of old (robbers) could atleast lay some claim. Discreditable as these proceedings were, worseensued. 

On the 5th of August a murderous attack was made upon a party ofMussulmans in the close vicinity of Belgrade, upon which occasion eightwere killed and seventeen wounded. No fire-arms were used, probably toavoid alarming the garrison. The absence on that night from the capitalof both Prince Milosch and his son, furnishes just grounds forsuspecting them of complicity in the affair, while the presence ofSleftcha (notoriously a creature of Russia), and Tenko, among themurderers, clearly shows where and with what views the crime wasdevised. On the same night, five Mussulmans who were sleeping in avineyard at Kladova, on the Bulgarian frontier, were murdered byServians, while an attack was made upon a third party. The prospects ofa country whose princes connive at, and whose ministers commit murder, cannot be very brilliant. Whether other atrocities might have met withthe sanction of Milosch it is impossible to say, for death cut him offin the latter part of September, 1860, full of years and crimes. Not theleast of these was the death of Kara George, who was treacherouslymurdered at his instigation. But let us pass from so unattractive aretrospect to a consideration of the character and policy of the livingprince who now holds the reins of government. 

CHAPTER III. 

The appointment of Prince Michael to the vacant throne of Servia was thefirst step towards the substitution of hereditary for electivesuccession. One of the first measures of the new prince was to inducethe Skuptschina, or National Assembly, to legalise for the future thatwhich had been an infraction of the law. The sixteen years whichintervened between 1842, when Michael was ejected, and 1858, when PrinceMilosch was reinstated, were passed by the former in the variouscapitals of Europe. The high Vienna notions which he imbibed during thatperiod have deprived him of the sympathy and affection of hissemi-civilised subjects, as much as the uncultivated mind of his fatherdeprived him of their respect. Nor does the lack of sympathy appear tobe one-sided. And, in truth, that mind must be possessed of no ordinaryamount of philanthropy which can apply itself to the improvement of apeople at once so ignorant and vain, and who evince withal so littledesire for enlightenment. 

At the time of his accession the Russian element, as has been shown, wasstrong in the Ministry. Sleftcha and the Metropolitan were herprincipal agents. It was to be expected, therefore, that he wouldadhere to the family principles, and sell himself body and soul to hisgreat benefactor. But it frequently happens that persons who have risento unexpected eminence turn upon those by whom they have been raised. This would appear to be somewhat the case with Prince Michael, whocertainly does not show the same devotion to Russia as did his father. It may be that he has not noted in the foreign policy of that power thedisinterestedness which she so loudly professes. If such be his views, who can controvert them? To the character of the man, combined with hispeculiarly irresponsible condition (owing to the guarantee), may beascribed his present line of conduct. Ambitious, obstinate, and devotedto intrigue, his character is no more that of a mere puppet than it isof one likely to attain to any great eminence. At first, it must beacknowledged that he played into the hands of Russia most unreservedly. No endeavours were spared to stir up discontent and rebellion in thesurrounding provinces. Little credit is due to the sagacity of those bywhom these machinations were contrived. For example, petitions were sentto all the foreign consulates purporting to come from the Christiansubjects of Turkey on the frontiers of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and settingforth the miserable condition to which they had been reduced byMussulman oppression. The sympathy which might have been felt for thesufferers was somewhat shaken by attendant circumstances, which threwdoubts on the authenticity of the letters. It appears that these arrivedfrom the two frontiers by the same post, while, on comparison, they werefound to be almost identical in form and wording. 

Great results were also anticipated from the Emigration movement, towhich the early part of 1861 was devoted. Russia, while endeavouring topromote the emigration of Bulgarians to the Crimea, did not discouragethe efforts of Servia to induce them to cross her frontier with the viewof settling. Several thousands did so, and these came principally fromthe Pachaliks of Widdin and Nish. Amongst these were many criminals andoutlaws, who were admitted by the Servians, in violation of theircharter. Considerable excitement prevailed, and subscriptions were seton foot for their benefit, but the movement appears to have died anatural death, as nothing is now heard of it. The émigrés cannot havebeen too well satisfied with the position in which they foundthemselves, since the greater number soon returned whence they came, inspite of Mussulman oppression. 

Since the failure of this scheme, the Prince has applied all hisenergies to the acquisition of independent power. He first endeavouredto effect it by means of a deputation to the Sublime Porte. Failing inthis, he resorted to the internal means at his disposal, and has gainedhis point. The principal objects which he had in view, and which he hassucceeded in carrying out, were the declaration of hereditarysuccession, and the abrogation of the Ustag or Constitution, by whichhis power was limited. The Senate, as the deliberative body may betermed, originally consisted of 17 members. They were in the firstinstance nominated by the then reigning prince, but could not be removedby him, while vacancies were filled up by election among themselves. Thewhole of these rules he has now set aside, and, albeit he has given acolouring of justice to his proceedings by restoring the original numberof members, and some other customs which had fallen into abeyance, hehas virtually stripped them of all power. With great astuteness heinduced the Skuptschina to deprive the Senate of legislative functions, and immediately afterwards to relinquish them itself, thus placingabsolute power in his hands. This grossly illegal action has met withsome faint resistance, but the Prince will without doubt carry out hiswishes. He has only to fear internal discontent, as he is entirelyindependent by virtue of the guarantee, not only of the European powers, but even of Turkey. It is true that this very policy cost him his thronein 1838, but with years he has gained prudence, and he is now pursuingit with far greater caution. The Servians, too, having sunkimmeasurably in the social scale, are less likely to stand upon theirrights, or to give him the same trouble as heretofore. 

Up to the present time all these schemes have weighed but little in thescale against the one absorbing ambition of his life. In a word, Michaelis a hot Panslavist. Of this he makes no secret, and he has probablyshared hitherto, in common with all Servians, very exaggerated notionsof the importance which Servia would assume were the dismemberment ofTurkey to take place. Their self-conceived superiority over the otherChristians of European Turkey, induces the Servians to regard thenorthern provinces in the same light as do the Greeks the southern. Theambition of Michael, however, is not satisfied with the prospect ofdominion over the undeveloped countries south of the Danube. Hisconversation, character, and previous history all point to oneconclusion--that he aspires to sway the destinies of the Slavishprovinces of Austria, and maybe of Hungary itself. His marriage with anHungarian lady of the name, and it is to be presumed of the stock of thegreat Hunyadi family, would appear to give some consistency to thesedreams. The chief drawbacks to its fulfilment are the unreality of theagitation among the Slavish populations, the power of Turkey to crushany insurrection unaided from without, and the honour and interest ofGreat Britain, which are staked on the preservation of the Ottomanempire from foreign aggressions. Although he may indulge in such daydreams, it is impossible but that a man of Prince Michael's calibre mustbe alive to all the opposing elements which will defer theaccomplishment of them to a remote period. Notwithstanding naturalprejudices, which in his case, however, are not very strong, it isprobable that he now sees the inutility, and understands how visionaryare the ambitious projects which he once entertained touching Servia. Such, at least, is the opinion of those who have the best opportunitiesof forming a correct judgement in the matter. Whatever may be his ownintellect, whatever his ability to conceive and execute, Servia is toodegraded to carry him through. To be the nucleus of a large kingdom, certain elements are necessary, in which she is strikingly deficient. Among these may be placed tried and flourishing institutions, unity ofsentiment and purpose amidst all classes, and a due appreciation of theadvantages of education and commerce; while last, but perhaps the mostimportant of all, is civil and religious liberty of the highest order. In all of these, I repeat, Servia is eminently wanting. 

A very slight glimpse also at her financial and military resources willshow how far she is fitted to take even a leading part in any emeutewhich circumstances may hereafter bring about. The total revenue of thecountry has up to this time amounted to 200, 000_l. _ sterling. This hasbeen raised by a tax of $5 levied on about 40, 000 males. Nearly thewhole sum is expended in paying and equipping the army, and in thesalary of officials. Dissatisfied with the small amount of revenue, thePrince undertook, during the past year, to reorganise the taxation. Animpost upon property was projected in lieu of the capitation tax, buthaving, unfortunately, started without any very well-defined basis, thesystem broke down, actually producing a smaller revenue than was yieldedby the original method. Equally abortive, as might have beenanticipated, was the scheme for raising a militia of 50, 000 men. Presupposing, for the sake of argument, a strong military spirit to berife among the people, the financial condition of the country wouldrender the idea untenable, since it is with difficulty that the 1, 800soldiers who constitute the regular army can be maintained. Grantingeven the willingness to serve, and the ability of the government to paythem, the population of the country would not, according to ordinarystatistics, furnish so large a force. The greatest number that could becalculated on in the event of war would be about 40, 000 men, and theseonly in a war in which the national sympathy might be deeply enlisted. How many of this number would remain in arms, would probably depend onthe amount of plunder to be obtained, and the nature of the resistancewhich they might encounter. 

The matérial of the existing force is about on an equality with that ofmost continental armies. A portion of the troops are armed with rifles, and the remainder with unbrowned muskets. One battery of artillery formsthe aggregate of that arm of the service. There are 70 guns at thearsenal at Kragiewatz, but they are all old and unfit for field service. A French Colonel has lately been imported to fill the combined officesof War-Minister and Commander-in-Chief. This, and, indeed, the whole ofthe recent internal policy, leaves very little doubt of the sourcewhence emanate these high-flown ideas. It cannot be better expressedthan as a _politique d'ostentation_, which is, if we may compare smallthings with great, eminently French. The oscillation of French andRussian influence, and the amicable manner in which their delegatesrelinquish the field to each other alternately, implies the existence ofa mutual understanding between them. Whether this accord extends to awider sphere and more momentous questions, time alone will show. Meanwhile, the Prince continues to indulge in dreams of a Panslavishkingdom, and of the crumbs which may fall to his own share, while heneglects the true interests of his country, with which his own are sointimately blended. Let him apply himself to the developement of herinternal resources, to the promotion of education and civilisation amongthe people, and, above all, let him root out that spirit of indolencewhich has taken such firm hold upon all classes. It is his policy to doall this, that Servia may be in a position to assume that leading placeamong the Slavonic races which she arrogates to herself, shouldunforeseen circumstances call upon her to do so. With her he must standor fall; therefore, setting aside more patriotic motives, self-interestrenders it imperative on him to apply himself zealously to herregeneration. 

With regard to his foreign policy, he cannot do better than act up tothe conviction which he has himself more than once expressed, that 'theinterests of Servia are identical with those of Turkey. ' For, should thedisruption of the Ottoman empire take place--the probability of which isat any rate no greater than in the time of our grandfathers--it will notbe effected by internal revolution, but by foreign intervention; andcredulous must he be who can believe in the disinterestedness of thosewho would lend themselves to such a measure. Thus, in the partitionwhich would ensue, Servia might find even her former independenceoverlooked. 

Let me add, that if I have alluded in strong terms to the condition ofthe people, I have done it in all sincerity, regretting that Serviashould thus cast away the sympathy which, were she bent onself-advancement, would pour in upon her from every side. If, again, Imay appear presumptuous in dictating the duties which devolve upon herPrince, I am prompted to it by the supineness which he has as yetevinced in promoting the desire for civilisation. Let him delay nolonger, for, should events so dispose themselves that Servia should beweighed in the balance, she will, unless an amendment takes place, beindeed found miserably wanting. 

CONCLUSION. 

In conclusion, I would venture to call attention to the fact that thepreceding pages were written before events had assumed the aspect whichthey now wear. Actual hostilities had not then commenced againstMontenegro; the Turkish Government had not then contracted the loanwhich has opened up new prospects for the finances of the country. 

That Omer Pacha has not already brought the war to a close is to beregretted, but let those who criticise the slowness of his movementsweigh well all the disadvantages against which he has to contend. 

It would be useless to enumerate these again, as they are alluded tomore than once in the course of this volume. Suffice it to say, then, that if Cettigné be taken and Montenegro occupied before the end of thepresent year, Omer Pacha will have placed another feather in his cap, and will have materially increased the debt of gratitude to which he isalready entitled. 

APPENDIX. 

The following is an extract of a letter from the young Prince ofMontenegro, addressed to the Consuls of the Great Powers. The sentimentswhich it expresses are creditable enough, and, did his acts corroboratehis words, he would be well entitled to the sympathy which he demands. 

 Cettigné, le 30 juillet 1861. 

 Monsieur le Consul, A l'occasion de la récente et grave mésure prise par la Turquie envers le Montenégro, je crois devoir rompre le silence et faire connaître succinctement à MM. Les Consuls des Grandes Puissances qu'elle a été tenue depuis un an par le Montenegro vis-à-vis de l'empire ottoman. 

 Depuis mon avènement j'ai employé tout mon pouvoir à maintenir la tranquillité. Sur les frontières je n'ai rien négligé pour éloigner tout motif de collision, pour calmer les animosités séculaires qui séparent les deux peuples, en un mot, pour donner à la Turquie les preuves les plus irréfragables de meilleur voisinage. 

 Dans une occasion toute récente je me suis rendu avec empressement au désir exprimé par les Grandes Puissances de me voir contribuer autant qu'il était dans mon pouvoir au soulagement des malheureux enfermés dans la forteresse de Niksich. J'ai été heureux de pouvoir en pareilles circonstances donner une preuve de déference aux Grandes Puissances, et de pouvoir répondre, comme il convenait à un souverain et un peuple chrétien, à l'appel fait à ses sentiments d'humanité. Je ne me suis point arrêté devant la considération d'un intérêt personnel. 

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[Illustration: THE SLAVONIC PROVINCES OF EUROPEAN TURKEY. ]