ENGLISH GRAMMAR, IN

FAMILIAR LECTURES;

ACCOMPANIED BYA COMPENDIUMEMBRACING

A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSINGA NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION, EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, AND

A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, IN NOTES:

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISESDESIGNEDFOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. 

STEREOTYPE EDITION

NEW YORKROBERT B. COLLINS, 254 PEARL STREET. 

_Southern District of New-York, ss_. 

BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 22d day of August, A. D. 1829, in the L. S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, SamuelKirkham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the titleof a book, the right whereof he claims as author, in the wordsfollowing, to wit:

"English Grammar in familiar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium, embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system ofPunctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of PhilosophicalGrammar in notes: to which are added an Appendix, and a Key to theExercises: designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. BySamuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved. " In conformityto the act of Congress of the United States, entitled "an act for theencouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, andbooks, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the timetherein mentioned. " And also to an act entitled "an act supplementary toan act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securingthe copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors ofsuch copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending thebenefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etchinghistorical and other prints. "

FRED. J. BETTS, _Clerk of the Southern District of New-York. _

AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION, DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS

BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. 

This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the firstpart of it, the _principles_ of reading are developed and explained in ascientific and _practical_ manner, and so familiarly illustrated intheir application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenilemind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their designand use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both, inreading and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain. 

The last part of the work, contains _Selections_ from the greatestmaster-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient andmodern. Many of these selections are taken from the most elegant andclassical American authors--writers whose noble productions have alreadyshed an unfading lustre, and stamped immortality upon the literature ofour country. --In the select part of the work, _rhetorical marks_ arealso employed to point out the application of the principles laid downin the first part. --The very favorable reception of the work by thepublic, and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools, since itsfirst publication in 1833, excites in the author the most sanguine hopesin regard to its future success. 

NOTICES. 

After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, thatit is the only _successful_ attempt of the kind. The rules are copious, and the author's explanations and illustrations _are happily adapted tothe comprehension of learners_. No school should be without this book, and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman whovalues the attainment of a just and forcible elocution. --_PittsburghMer. April, _ 1834. 

Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and hasfollowed them by illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon theinflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference ofone inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work. Copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and theshades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness. The catechetical appendages of each chapter, give the work new value ina school, and the selections made for the exercise of scholars, evincegood taste and judgment. _U. S. Gazette, Philadelphia, Sept_. 17, 1834. 

The Essay now before us, needs not depend on any former work of itsauthor for a borrowed reputation; it has intrinsic merits of its own. Itlays down principles clearly and concisely. It presents the reader withmany new and judicious selections, both in prose and poetry; andaltogether evinces great industry combined with taste andingenuity. --_Courier of Upper Canada, York, Oct_. 12, 1833. 

Of the talent and judgment of Mr. Kirkham, we have already had occasionto speak in terms of honest praise. His work on Elocution raises himstill higher in our estimation. --The book would be of great utility inschools--such a one as has long been wanted; and we are glad to see itforthcoming. --_Baltimore Visitor, July, _ 1833. 

Every facility for teaching Elocution, which I have so often needed, butnever before found, is exactly furnished in this work:--principles areclearly and concisely laid down, and _are very happily adapted to thecomprehension of the learner_. Thoroughly convinced of its utility, Ishall lose no time in introducing it into my school. _Hartford, Conn. Aug. _. 20, 1534. NATHANIEL WEBB. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

It is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany newbooks have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be, for that work which rests more on its written testimonials, than on itsintrinsic merits for support, asserts no claims to permanent patronage. But recommendations which analyze the merits of a work, and which, byexhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are calculated tocarry conviction to the reader that the system recommended ismeritorious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present inthis volume. The following are _some_ of the numerous testimonials whichhe has received, and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgmentsto those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he isindebted for them. More than _six hundred_ others presented to theauthor, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has notroom to insert. 

 * * * * *

The following notice of this work is extracted from the "WesternReview. " This journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, author of "Francis Berrian, " "History and Geography of the Miss. Valley, " and many other popular and valuable works. 

We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's "Grammar in familiarLectures, " but have since given it a cursory perusal. If we comprehendthe author's design, it is not so much to introduce new principles, asto render more easy and intelligible those which have been longestablished, and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate andthorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has beensuccessful. 

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presentinghimself before the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as isconsistent with his plan, avail himself of the authority of such as havewritten well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham has accordinglyfollowed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers ongrammar, in the general principles of his science; endeavoring, at thesame time, to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in thewritings of that author, and adopting an entirely new arrangement. Themost useful matter contained in the treatise of Mr. Murray, is embracedin this; but in the definitions and rules, it is simplified, andrendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray, in the general principles of his work, he has, in numerous instances, differed from him, pursuing a course that appears to be his own, andintroducing some valuable improvements. 

Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notesin syntax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode ofexplaining them, manner of parsing, manner of explaining some of thepronouns, and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of thescience at one view, and is well calculated to afford assistance tolearners. 

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to haveendeavored to follow _the order of nature;_ and we are not able to seehow he could have done better. The noun and verb, as being the mostimportant parts of speech, are first explained, and afterwards thosewhich are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. Byfollowing this order, he has avoided the absurdity so common amongauthors, of defining the minor parts before their principals, of whichthey were designed to be the appendages, and has rationally prepared theway for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of thescience. 

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work, ourauthor appears to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at theappearance of being learned, but at being understood. The clearness andperspicuity of his remarks, and their application to familiar objects, are well calculated to arrest the attention, and aid the understandingof the pupil, and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor. Theprinciples of the science _are simplified, and rendered so perfectlyeasy of comprehension, _ we should think no ordinary mind, having suchhelp, could find them difficult. It is in this particular that the workappears to possess its chief merit, and on this account it cannot failof being preferred to many others. 

It gives us pleasure to remark, in reference to the success of theamiable and modest author whose work is before us, that we quote fromthe fifth edition. 

Cincinnati, Aug. 24, 1827. 

The following is from the pen of a gentleman of the Bar, formerly adistinguished Classical teacher. [Extract from the "National Crisis. "]

As a friend to literature, and especially to genuine merit, it is withpeculiar pleasure I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, inwhich Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to deliver a course of Lectures on EnglishGrammar. To such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practicalknowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented whichought not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, in severalinstances, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr. Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. The extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class inPittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere, are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method ofteaching, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow. 

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's "New system of Grammar" ispredicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed;but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrationsaccompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in whichit conducts the learner along from step to step through the successivestages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, areaddressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whateversystem is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, I conceive, be productive of good results. In my humble opinion, thesystem of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a diligentpupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge ofgrammar, _in less than one-fourth_ part of the time usually devoted. 

My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, with thegreater pleasure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have beenso extensively practised in many parts of the western country. 

Cincinnati, April 26, 1826. 

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa. 

Mr. Kirkham, --It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher ofyouth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but haveused many of the different systems of English grammar that have fallenin my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter, that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen. 

Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent; andexperience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the lasttwelve or thirteen months), that a scholar will learn more of the natureand principles of our language in _one quarter_, from your system, thanin a _whole year_ from any other I had previously used. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large, andespecially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language, are destitute of the advantages of an instructer. 

Yours, very respectfully, SAMUEL BLOOD. 

Chambersburgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825. 

From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled "TheHesperus. "

Mr. Kirkham, Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degreeof minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation ofthe work as a grammatical system. The engaging manner in which you haveexplained the elements of grammar, and accommodated them to thecapacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of yourplan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an_analytical development_ of grammatical principles, while it iscalculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the marchof improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of theliterary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compilation will bespeedily introduced into schools and academies. 

With respect, yours, N. R. SMITH, A. M. 

Pittsburgh, March 22, 1825. 

From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick LutheranAcademy:--Extract. 

Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of "EnglishGrammar in familiar Lectures, " I am satisfied that the pre-eminentadvantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince thepublic, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery whichhave so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided _superiority overall other systems_, consists in adapting the subject-matter to thecapacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted ofcommunicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that hecan easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principlethat comes before him. 

In short, all the intricacies of the science are _elucidated soclearly_, I am confident that even a private learner, of commondocility, can, by perusing this system attentively acquire a betterpractical knowledge of this important branch of literature in _threemonths_, than is ordinarily obtained in _one year_. 

Frederick, Md. Sept 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN. 

Extract: from De Witt Clinton, late Gov. Of New-York. 

I consider the Compendium of English Grammar, by Samuel Kirkham, a workdeserving encouragement, and well calculated to facilitate theacquisition of this useful science. DE WITT CLINTON. 

Albany, Sept 25, 1824. 

S. Kirkham, Esq. --I have examined your Grammar with attention, and witha particular view to benefit the Institution under my charge. I am fullysatisfied, that it is the _best form_ in which Murray's principles havebeen given to the public. The lectures are ample, and given in sofamiliar and easy language, as to be readily understood, even by a_tyro_ in grammar. 

I feel it due to you to say, that I commenced the examination of yourwork, under _a strong prejudice against it, _ in consequence of thenumerous "improved systems" with which the public has been inundated, oflate, most of which are by no means improvements on Murray, but theproductions of individuals whom a "_little grammar_ has renderedgrammatically insane. " My convictions, therefore, are the result of_investigation_. I wish you, Sir, success in your publication. 

Respectfully, EBER. WHEATON, Pr. Of Mechanics' Society School

With the opinion of Mr. Wheaton respecting Mr. Kirkham's English Grammar, we heartily concur. NATHAN STARK, Pr. Acad. (Rev. ) JOHN JOHNSTON, Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829. (Rev. ) WM. S. HEYER, From the Rev. C. P. McIlvaine, and others. 

So far as I have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by SamuelKirkham I am well satisfied that _it meets the wants_ of elementaryschools in this branch, and deserves to be patronised. CHARLES P. McILVAINE. 

Brooklyn, L. I. July 9, 1829. 

We fully concur in the above, ANDREW HAGEMAN, E. M. JOHNSON. 

EXTRACT. 

From the partial examination which I have given Mr. S. Kirkham's EnglishGrammar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the _best ofthe class I have ever seen, _ and as filling up an important and almostimpassable chasm in works on grammatical science. D. L. CARROLL. 

Brooklyn, L. I. June 29, 1829. 

We fully concur in the foregoing recommendation. B. B. HALLOCK, E. KINGSLEY, T. S. MAYBON. 

From A. W. Dodge, Esq. 

New-York, July 15, 1829. 

The experience of every one at all acquainted with the business ofinstruction, must have taught him that the study of grammar, importantas it is to every class of learners, is almost invariably a dry anduninteresting study to young beginners, and for the very obvious reason, that the systems in general use in the schools, are _far beyond_ thecomprehension of youth, and ill adapted to their years. Hence it is, that their lessons in this department of learning, are considered as_tasks, _ and if committed at all, committed to _the memory, withoutenlightening their understandings;_ so that many a pupil who has _beenthrough_ the English grammar, is totally unacquainted with the natureeven of the simplest parts of speech. 

The work of Mr. Kirkham on grammar, is well calculated to remedy theseevils, and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriouslyfelt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge oftheir own language. By a simple, familiar, and lucid method of treatingthe subject, he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable, pleasing and instructive. In one word, the grammar of Mr. Kirkhamfurnishes a _clew_ by which the youthful mind is guided through theintricate labyrinth of verbs, nouns and pronouns; and the path which hasbeen heretofore so difficult and uninviting, as to dampen the ardor ofyouth, and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount itsobstacles, is cleared of these obstructions by this _pioneer_ to theyouthful mind, and planted, at every turn, with friendly _guide-boardsto direct them in the right road_. The slightest perusal of the workalluded to, will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of theseremarks, and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to oldrules and forms, that it will meet the wants of the community. 

ALLEN W. DODGE. 

Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829

Having, for several years, been engaged in lecturing on the science ofgrammar and, during this period, having _thoroughly tested_ the meritsof Mr. S. Kirkham's system of "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures" byusing it as a text-book for my classes, I take pleasure in giving thistestimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham hasattempted to improve upon this branch of science, chiefly by unfoldingand explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear andsimple, as _to adapt them completely to the understanding_ of the younglearner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil tocommit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practicalexamples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful inhis attempt _in a pre-eminent degree_. I make this assertion under afull conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge ofthe science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of thismanual. 

The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, thenovel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanyingthem, the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts ofthe subject, the facilities proffered by the "systematic mode ofparsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction andadaptation of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches andcritical investigations displayed in the "Philosophical Notes, " renderthis system of grammar _so decidedly superior to all others extant_, that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known. 

My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, andwitnessing its effects in the hands of private learners, warrants me insaying, that a learner will, by studying this book _four months withouta teacher_, obtain a more clear conception of the nature and properconstruction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in commonschools and academies, _in five times four months_. 

It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has beencirculated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness whichhave so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country. 

I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections inorthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and theimprovements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. Is aboutintroducing into his ELEVENTH EDITION, will render it quite _animprovement on the former editions of this work_. H. WINCHESTER. 

From the Rev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy. 

I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiarsatisfaction. The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To pointout the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no othersystem can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present itis sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentiallyexcellent and useful in other systems, while it is entirely free fromthat tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so muchperplex and embarrass the learner. 

The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, _the simplicity ofits method_, and _the plainness of its illustrations_. Being conductedby familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought intoagreeable contact by each lesson. Both are improved by the same task, without the slightest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there isanything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject: a conviction, this, which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will bemade. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a _practical_ one;and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to beintroduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment Ican attest to the practicability of the plan which the author hasadopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the painsto make the experiment. SAMUEL CENTER. 

Albany, July 10, 1829. 

From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton, author of the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book. "

Dear Sir, --I am much pleased with both the _plan_ and _execution_ ofyour "English Grammar in Familiar Lectures. " In giving a _systematicmode of parsing_, calculated alike to exercise the _understanding_ and_memory_ of the pupil, and also free the teacher from the _drudgery_ ofcontinued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every_elementary_ school book ought to be--_plain, systematic_, and _easy_ tobe understood. 

This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and otherimprovements so judiciously introduced, gives it _a decisivesuperiority_ over the imperfect grammar of Murray, now so generallyused. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A. M. 

Allegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh, ) March 18, 1825. 

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION. 

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise firstventured on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage whichhave waited it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason toanticipate. Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that thedemand for it would call forth _twenty-two thousand_ copies during thepast year, the author would have considered the prediction extravagantand chimerical. In gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiledso propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, he has endeavored, by unremitting attention to the improvement of hiswork, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time andtalents would permit. 

It is believed that the _tenth_ and _eleventh_ editions have beengreatly improved; but the author is apprehensive that his work is notyet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, thedisadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution, and of beingable to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pursuits of a business life, (_active_ as faras his imperfect health permits him to be, ) are any apology for itsdefects, he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to hiscredit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimedat him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall uponhim. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics andreviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want ofself-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, bewilling to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his interest; forhe is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of theadvantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, that may appear, and, two or three years hence, _revise_ his work, andpresent to the public another and a better edition. 

The improvements in the _tenth_ edition, consisted mainly in theaddition of many important principles; in rendering the illustrationsmore critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid; in connecting moreclosely with the genius and philosophy of our language, the generalprinciples adopted; and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammarinterspersed in notes. The introduction into the ELEVENTH EDITION, ofmany verbal criticisms, of additional corrections in orthography andorthoepy, of the leading principles of rhetoric, and of generaladditions and improvements in various parts of the work, render _thisedition/, _ it is believed, _far preferable_ to any of the formereditions of the work. 

Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibitionof pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that someinvestigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion ofthe community whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence ofa kind of _philosophical mania;_ and to such these notes arerespectfully submitted for just what _they_ may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point, is, that they proffer no_material_ advantages to common learners; but that they may profitablyengage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree ofinterest to the literary connoisseur. 

New-York, August 22, 1820. 

CONTENTS. 

Address to the learnerA, an, oneAndAdjectivesAdverbsAgreement of wordsAnomaliesArticlesBecauseBut, than, asCase Nominative Possessive Objective Nominative case independent Nominative case absolute Apposition of cases Nominative and objective after the verb _to be_ Active, passive, and neuter nominativesConjunctionsConjugation of regular verbsDerivation (all the philosophical notes treat of derivation)EtymologyExercises in false syntax In punctuationFigures of speechGenderGovernmentGrammar, general division of PhilosophicalHaveIdiomsInterjectionsItIfKey to the exercisesLetters, sounds ofLikeManner of meaning of wordsMoods Signs of SubjunctiveNouns Gender of Person of Number of Case ofOrthography Rules ofParsingParticiplesPoetry transposedPrepositionsPronouns Personal Compound personal Adjective RelativePronunciationProsodyProvincialismsPunctuationRhetoricRules of syntaxSentences, definitions of simple and compound Transposition ofStandard of grammatical accuracySyntaxToTenses Signs of theTheThatTerminationsVerbs Active-transitive Active-intransitive Passive Neuter Defective Auxiliary Regular Irregular CompoundVersificationWorthWhat, which, whoYou

PREFACE

There appears to be something assuming in the act of writing, andthrusting into public notice, a new work on a subject which has alreadyemployed many able pens; for who would presume to do this, unless hebelieved his production to be, in some respects, superior to every oneof the kind which had preceded it? Hence, in presenting to the publicthis system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology willbe looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that noexplanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation ofarrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest, or by those who arewedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors, with _them_ hewill not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferenteither to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he iswilling to negotiate an amicable treaty, knowing that they are alwaysready to enter into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asksnothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practicalutility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successful infacilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement, _that_ will be its best apology. 

When we bring into consideration the numerous productions of thoselearned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, sosuccessfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, moreespecially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, whohave displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrangethose principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easymedium of mental conference; it does, indeed, appear a little likepresumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has sofrequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished fortheir erudition. The author ventures forward, however, under theconviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, in _manner, _ if not in _matter_; and this conviction, he believes, willbe corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community. It isadmitted, that many valuable improvements have been made by some of ourlate writers, who have endeavored to simplify and render this subjectintelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what theauthor considers a very important object, namely, _a systematic order ofparsing;_ and nearly all have neglected to _develop and explain_ theprinciples in such a manner as to enable the learner, without greatdifficulty, to comprehend their nature and use. 

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its_simplicity_; while to others its simplicity will prove its principalrecommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no greatadvantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes not to instruct theliterary connoisseur; it presents no attractive graces of style tocharm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep researches to gratifyhim; but in the humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts toaccelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path ofscience, by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it, andremoving those obstacles that generally retard its progress. In this wayit endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which hashitherto been considered tedious, dry, and irksome. Its leading objectis to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which pleasure is blendedwith the labors of the learner, and which is calculated to excite in hima spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and usefulexercise, every latent energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon tobecome thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and withtheir practical utility and application. 

Content to be useful, instead of being brilliant, the writer of thesepages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to havebeen to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has aimed not so much atoriginality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessorswhose labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in hisopinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, inthe public mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained inMr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives ofpolicy, but from choice, to select his _principles_ chiefly from thatwork; and, moreover, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he variedfrom him, unless he conceived that, in so doing, some practicaladvantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure sofrequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators whohave not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that ablewriter, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the worldas authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselvesthe credit due to another. 

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions tooriginality; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and whowould presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if hehappen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to _some_contained in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him ofplagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuitsoften elicit corresponding ideas in different minds: and hence it is notuncommon for the same thought to be strictly _original_ with manywriters. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment toshield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property ofanother; but he wishes it to be understood, that a long course ofteaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas andarguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly correspondingwith those which he afterwards found, had, under similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, therefore, to bepardoned by the critic, even though he should not be willing to reject agood idea _of his own, _ merely because some one else has, at some timeor other, been blessed with the same thought. 

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those ofordinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his workunreasonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as wasdesirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most importantprinciples of the science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, sufficiently extensive for all ordinary, practicalpurposes, and a key to the exercises, and, moreover, a series ofillustrations so full and intelligible, as _completely to adapt theprinciples to the capacities of common learners. _ Whether this designhas been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is left for the publicto decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever ithas become known, and the ready sale of _forty thousand_ copies, (though_without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit, _) arefavorable omens. 

In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the authorhas endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of takingblindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and theauthority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at defiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow allformer systems, and convince the world that all true knowledge andscience are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its owninvention. Notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice ispowerful, and that he who ventures much by way of innovation, will beliable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect; yet he hastaken the liberty to think for himself, to investigate the subjectcritically and dispassionately, and to adopt such principles only as hedeemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the objecthe had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on others, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the_method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of thelearner_. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible: andhe is free to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his ownwant of judgment and skill. But there is another and a more seriouscause of them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which thelanguage abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of theexistence of so widely different opinions on many important points; and, moreover, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language cannever be indisputably settled. But principles ought not to be rejectedbecause they admit of exceptions. --He who is thoroughly acquainted withthe genius and structure of our language, can duly appreciate the truthof these remarks. 

 * * * * *

Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon bedestroyed by their children, they are informed that the pupil will nothave occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book whichit accompanies: and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all thedefinitions and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series ofLectures. 

HINTS TO TEACHERS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 

As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrangementessentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be deemedimproper for the author to give some directions to those who may bedisposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of theorder of parsing, will not consider it _new_, but blend it with thoselong since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhatsimilar; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the authorconsiders a _regular systematic order_. 

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to_interrogate_ the pupil as he proceeds; or else he is permitted to parsewithout giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learnerought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down nosystematic arrangement of questions as his guide. The _systematic_ orderlaid down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to applyevery definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses, without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing, he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables thelearner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time, a greatrelief to the instructer. The convenience and advantage of this method, are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquaintedwith it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been established, of causing learners to commit andrecite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application ofthem to practical examples, immediately abolished. This system obviatesthe necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery; for theyoung beginner who pursues it, will have, in a few weeks, all the mostimportant definitions and rules perfectly committed, simply by applyingthem in parsing. 

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that everyteacher who is desirous to consult, either his own convenience, or theadvantage of his pupils, will readily pursue it in preference to anyformer method. This belief is founded on the advantages which theauthor himself has experienced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, he can, with less labor, advance a pupil farther in a practicalknowledge of this abstruse science, in _two months_, than he could in_one year_ when he taught in the "old way. " It is presumed that noinstructor, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt thetruth of this assertion. 

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of thetransposition of many parts; but whoever examines it attentively, willfind that, although the author has not followed the common "artificialand unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors, " yet hehas endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, "the order of theunderstanding. "

The learner should commence, _not by committing and rehearsing_, but byreading attentively the first _two_ lectures several times over. Heought then to parse, according to the _systematic order_, the examplesgiven for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has anopportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to theparts of speech included in the examples. 

The COMPENDIUM, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed butcomprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an"Ocular Analysis of the English language. " By referring to it, the youngstudent is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the verycommencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seemrather tedious; but it must appear obvious to every person ofdiscernment, that a pupil will learn more by parsing _five_ wordscritically, and explaining them fully, than he would by parsing _fifty_words superficially, and without understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursues this plan, is not under the necessity of hearinghis pupils recite a single lesson of _definitions_ committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these asthey evince it in parsing. All other directions necessary for thelearner in school, as well as for the _private learner_, will be givenin the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove asaving of much time and expense to those young persons who may bedisposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily toacquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important anddesirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized;but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by theacquisition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficientambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with itscontents, it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement, will notbe thrown upon _him. _

 * * * * *

To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed tolecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hintsby way of encouragement. 

Any judicious instructor of grammar, if he take the trouble to makehimself familiar with the contents of the following pages, will find itan easy matter to pursue this system. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge ofthe nature and use of the principles by intense application, let himcommunicate it verbally; that is, let him first take up one part ofspeech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book, but also bygiving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds. After a part ofspeech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interrogated on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under therules that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the otherparts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, untilthe learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles mayhave been presented. If this plan be faithfully pursued, rapid progress, on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result; and thatteacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and anenviable popularity in his profession. S. KIRKHAM. 

FAMILIAR LECTURES

ON

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE I

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. --ORTHOGRAPHY. 

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. 

You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightlypursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle ofscience. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under theimpression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter oflittle consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor toconvince you, before I close these lectures, that this is not only apleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility; a study thatdirectly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate thecondition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning whichalone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and ofelevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectualexistence;--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, andenables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any andevery other path of science, you will discover the truth of theseremarks, and feel its force; for you will find, that, as grammar opensthe door to every department of learning, a knowledge of it isindispensable: and should you not aspire at distinction in the republicof letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, evenif you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I thinkit is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possessesa decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, arithmetic, geography, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, arehighly useful in their respective places; but not one of them is souniversally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In everysituation, under all circumstances, on all occasions;--when you speak, read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility. 

Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect andcorrect any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accuratelywithout a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soonconvince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good authors, and conversing with the learned, acquirethat knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaringerrors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot bedetected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Believe me, therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application ofgrammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, orwrite with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often expresstheir ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render itimpossible for any one to _understand_ them: their language frequentlyamounts, not only to _bad_ sense, but _non_-sense. In other instancesseveral different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; andwhat is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are soconstructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which theyintended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of yourattention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge. 

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the waysmooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns interspersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted; or, in simple language, you willfind, in the pursuit of this science, many intricacies which it israther difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor toillustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple, that youwill be able, _if you exercise your mind, _ to understand its nature, andapply it to practice as you go along; for I would rather give you oneuseful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which youwould probably be unable to comprehend. 

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or thesense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, eitherby studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent toinform you, till you obtain a clear conception of it, and till alldoubts are removed. By carefully examining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammaticalconstruction of our language, and fix in your mind the principles bywhich it is governed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear anddistinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing;and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with anybranch of learning which requires much time and attention to beunderstood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to bediscouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect tomeet; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you toovercome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of yourstudies, is to cultivate the habit of _thinking methodically andsoundly_ on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as tospeak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, accordingto the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. Thissystem is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand andstrengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves aprocess by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammarcommunicated in an interesting and familiar manner. 

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light andknowledge;--an age in which science and the arts are marching onwardwith gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty;--a land onwhich the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump ofthe warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains, orin our valleys; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away;" themighty struggle for independence is over; and you live to enjoy the richboon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of ourfathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be sounmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Remember that "knowledge is power;" that an enlightened and a virtuouspeople can never be enslaved; and that, on the intelligence of ouryouth, rest the future liberty, the prosperity, the happiness, thegrandeur, and the glory of our beloved country. Go on then, with alaudable ambition, and an unyielding perseverance, in the path whichleads to honor and renown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on thehill of science; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep" of hercrystal fountain; and then join in "the march of fame. " Become learnedand virtuous, and you will be great. Love God and serve him, and youwill be happy. 

LANGUAGE. 

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by which menand brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, affections, anddesires. 

Language may be divided, 1. Into natural and artificial; 2. Into spokenand written. 

NATURAL LANGUAGE, consists in the use of those natural signs whichdifferent animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another. The meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles oftheir nature. This language is common both to man and brute. Theelements of natural language in man, may be reduced to three kinds;modulations of the voice, gestures, and features. By means of these, twosavages who have no common, artificial language, can communicate theirthoughts in a manner quite intelligible: they can ask and refuse, affirmand deny, threaten and supplicate; they can traffick, enter intocontracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes consists inthe use of those _inarticulate_ sounds by which they express theirthoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, the bleating of alamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, whining, and barking ofa dog, are the language of those animals, respectively. 

ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE consists in the use of words, by means of whichmankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another. --Inorder to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term _word, _ Iwill endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term. 

_Idea_. The _notices_ which we gain by sensation and perception, andwhich are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking andknowledge, are denominated ideas. For example, when you place your handupon a piece of ice, a sensation is excited which we call _coldness_. That faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in themind, is called _perception;_ and the abstract notice itself, or notionyou form of this sensation, is denominated an _idea_. This beingpremised, we will now proceed to the consideration of words. 

_Words_ are _articulate_ sounds, used by common consent, not as natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no meaning inthemselves. They are merely the artificial representatives of thoseideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them. In English, for instance, to a particular kind of metal we assign thename _gold;_ not because there is, in that sound, any peculiar aptnesswhich suggests the idea we wish to convey, but the application of thatsound to the idea signified, is an act altogether arbitrary. Were thereany natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified, theword _gold_ would convey the same idea to the people of other countriesas it does to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations makeuse of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, _aurum_ denotesthe same idea in Latin, and _or_ in French. Hence it follows, that it isby custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds. 

SPOKEN LANGUAGE or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by thehuman voice. 

_The voice_ is formed by air which, after it passes through the glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe, ) is modulated bythe action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, and nostrils. 

WRITTEN LANGUAGE. The elements of written language consist of letters orcharacters, which, by common consent and general usage, are combinedinto words, and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulatesounds uttered by the voice. 

 * * * * *

GRAMMAR. 

GRAMMAR is the science of language. 

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and particular. 

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR explains the principles which are common to alllanguages. 

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR applies those general principles to a particularlanguage, modifying them according to its genius, and the establishedpractice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used. Hence, _The established practice of the best speakers and writers_ of anylanguage, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of thatlanguage. 

By the phrase, _established practice, _ is implied reputable, national, and present usage. A usage becomes _good_ and _legal, _ when it has beenlong and generally adopted. 

_The best speakers and writers, _ or such as may be considered goodauthority in the use of language, are those who are deservedly in highestimation; speakers, distinguished for their elocution and otherliterary attainments, and writers, eminent for correct taste, solidmatter, and refined manner. 

In the grammar of a _perfect_ language, no rules should be admitted, butsuch as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius ofthat language and the nature of things; but our language being_im_-perfect, it becomes necessary, in a _practical_ treatise, likethis, to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulatedby _custom_. If we had a permanent and surer standard than capriciouscustom to regulate us in the transmission of thought, greatinconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who introduce usageswhich depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language, areconspicuous among the number of those who form that language, and havepower to control it. 

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressiveadvancement, _varied_ for purposes of practical convenience. Hence itassumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to giveit. We are, therefore, as _rational_ and _practical_ grammarians, compelled to submit to the necessity of the case; to take the languageas it _is_, and not as it _should be_, and bow to custom. 

PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR investigates and develops the principles oflanguage, as founded in the nature of things and the original laws ofthought. It also discusses the grounds of the classification of words, and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for ourobservance. 

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR adopts the most convenient classification of the wordsof a language, lays down a system of definitions and rules, founded onscientific principles and good usage, illustrates their nature anddesign, and enforces their application. 

PRINCIPLE. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of thelanguage, sanctioned by good usage. 

DEFINITION. A definition in grammar is a principle of language expressedin a definite form. 

RULE. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantialrelation of words, which custom has established for our observance. 

 * * * * *

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing the English languagewith propriety. 

GRAMMAR teaches us _how to use words in a proper manner. _ The mostimportant use of that faculty called speech, is, to convey our thoughtsto others. If, therefore, we have a store of words, and even know whatthey signify, they will be of no real use to us unless we can also applythem to practice, and make them answer the purposes for which they wereinvented. _Grammar_, well understood, enables us to express ourthoughts fully and clearly; and, consequently, in a manner which willdefy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than thatwhich we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to speak and writeour vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance, is, certainly, aconsideration of the highest moment. 

Grammar is divided into four parts;

 1. ORTHOGRAPHY, 2. ETYMOLOGY, 3. SYNTAX, 4. PROSODY. 

ORTHOGRAPHY teaches the nature and powers ofletters, and the just method of spelling words. 

ORTHOGRAPHY means _word-making_, or _spelling_. It teaches us thedifferent kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them intosyllables, and syllables into words. 

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I presumeyou already understand the nature and use of letters, and the justmethod of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary for you to dwelllong on this part of grammar, which, though very important, is ratherdry and uninteresting, for it has nothing to do with parsing andanalyzing language. And, therefore, if you can _spell correctly_, youmay omit Orthography, and commence with Etymology and Syntax. 

Orthography treats, 1st, of _Letters_, 2ndly, of _Syllables_, and 3dly, of _Words_. 

I. LETTERS. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

They are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself. The vowelsare _a, e, i, o, u, _ and sometimes _w_ and _y_. _W_ and _y_ areconsonants when they begin a word or syllable; but in every othersituation they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without thehelp of a vowel; as, _b, d, f, l_. All letters except the vowels areconsonants. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded _at all_ without the aid of a vowel. Theyare _b, p, t, d, k_, and _c_ and _g_ hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are _f, l, m, n, r, v, s, z, x_, and _c_ and _g_ soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, _l, m, n, r_, are called _liquids_, because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of _two_ vowels, pronounced by a single impulseof the voice; as _oi_ in voice, _ou_ in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of _three_ vowels pronounced in like manner;as, _eau_ in beau, _iew_ in view. 

A _proper_ diphthong has _both_ the vowels sounded; as, _ou_ in ounce. An _improper_ diphthong has only _one_ of the vowels sounded; as, _oa_in boat. 

II. SYLLABLES. A Syllable is a distinct sound, uttered by a singleimpulse of the voice; as, _a, an, ant_. 

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; a word of twosyllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable; aword of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. 

III. WORDS. Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, assigns of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. 

A _primitive_ word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word inthe language; as, _man, good_. 

A _derivative_ word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word; as, _manful, goodness_. 

There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words. The terminations or added syllables, such as _ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, ent, dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness_, and the like, were, originally, distinct and separate words, which, by long use, have beencontracted, and made to coalesce with other words. 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

A. --_A_ has four sounds; the long; as in _name, basin_; the broad; as in_ball, wall_; the short; as in _fagot, glass_; and the flat, Italiansound; as in _bar, farther_. The improper diphthong, _aa_, has theshort sound of a in _Balaam, Canaan, Isaac_; and the long sound of _a_in _Baal, Gaal, Aaron_. 

The Latin diphthong, _ae_, has the long sound of _e_ in _aenigma, Caesar_, and some other words. But many authors reject this uselessexcrescence of antiquity, and write, _enigma, Cesar_. 

The diphthong, _ai_, has the long sound of _a_; as in _pail, sail_;except in _plaid, said, again, raillery, fountain, Britain_, and someothers. 

_Au_ is sounded like broad _a_ in _taught_, like flat _a_ in _aunt_, like long _o_ in _hautboy_, and like short _o_ in _laurel_. 

_Aw_ has always the sound of broad _a_; as in _bawl, crawl_. 

_Ay_ has the long sound of _a_; as in _pay, delay_. 

B. --_B_ has only one sound; as in _baker, number, chub_. 

_B_ is silent when it follows _m_ in the same syllable; as in _lamb_, &c. Except in _accumb, rhomb_, and _succumb_. It is also silent before_t_ in the same syllable; as in _doubt, debtor, subtle_, &c. 

C. --_C_ sounds like _k_ before _a, o, u, r, l, t_, and at the end ofsyllables; as in _cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid_. It has the sound of _s_ before _e, i_, and _y_; as in _centre, cigar, mercy. C_ has the sound of _sh_ when followed by a diphthong, andis preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary; as in _social, pronunciation_, &c. ; and of _z_ in _discern, sacrifice, sice, suffice_. It is mute in _arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle_. 

_Ch_ is commonly sounded like _tsh_; as in _church, chin_; but in wordsderived from the ancient languages, it has the sound of _k_; as in_chemist, chorus_; and likewise in foreign names; as in _Achish, Enoch_. In words from the French, _ch_ sounds like _sh_; as in _chaise, chevalier_; and also like _sh_ when preceded by _l_ or _n_; as in_milch, bench, clinch_, &c. 

_Ch_ in _arch_, before a vowel, sounds like _k_; as in _arch-angel_, except in _arched, archery, archer; archenemy_; but before a consonant, it sounds like _tsh_; as in _archbishop. Ch_ is silent in _schedule, schism, yacht, drachm_. 

D. --_D_ has one uniform sound; as in _death, bandage_. It sounds like_dj_ or _j_ when followed by long _u_ preceded by the accent; as in_educate, verdure_. It also sounds like _j_ in _grandeur, soldier_. 

The termination, _ed_, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retainsits distinct sound; as, a _wick-ed_ man, a _learn-ed_ man, _bless-ed_are the meek; but in verbs the _e_ is generally dropped; as, _passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled_, &c. Which are pronounced, _past, walkt, flasht, aimd, rold_. 

E. --_E_ has a long sound; as in _scheme, severe_; a short sound; as in_men, tent_; and sometimes the sound of flat _a_; as in _sergeant_; andof short _i_; as in _yes, pretty, England_, and generally in theunaccented terminations, _es, et, en_. 

F. --_F_ has one unvaried sound; as in _fancy, muffin_; except in _of_, which, when uncompounded, is pronounced _ov_. A wive's portion, acalve's head, are improper. They should be, _wife's_ portion, _calf's_head. 

G. --_G_ has two sounds. It is hard before _a, o, u, l_, and _r_, and atthe end of a word; as in _gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug_. It is softbefore _e, i_, and _y_; as in _genius, ginger, Egypt_. Exceptions; _get, gewgaw, gimlet_, and some others. G is silent before _n_, as in _gnash_. 

H. --_H_ has an articulate sound; as in _hat, horse, hull_. It is silentafter _r_; as in _rhetoric, rhubarb_. 

I. --_I_ has a long sound; as in _fine_; and a short one; as in _fin_. Before _r_ it is often sounded like _u_ short; as in _first, third_; andin other words, like short _e_; as in _birth, virtue_. In some words ithas the sound of long _e_; as in _machine, profile_. 

J. --_J_ has the sound of soft _g_; except in _hallelujah_, in which itis pronounced like _y_. 

K. --_K_ has the sound of _c_ hard, and is used before _e, i_, and _y_, where _c_ would be soft; as _kept, skirt, murky_. It is silent before_n_; as in _knife, knell, knocker_. 

L. --_L_ has always a soft liquid sound; as in _love, billow_. It isoften silent; as in _half, talk, almond_. 

M. --_M_ has always the same sound; as in _murmur, monumental_; except in_comptroller_, which is pronounced _controller_. 

N. --_N_ has two sounds; the one pure; as in _man, net, noble_; the othera compound sound; as in _ankle, banquet, distinct_, &c. , pronounced_angkl, bangkwet_. _N_ final is silent when preceded by _m_; as in_hymn, autumn_. 

O. --_O_ has a long sound; as in _note, over_; and a short one; as in_not, got_. It has the sound of _u_ short; as in _son, attorney, doth, does_; and generally in the terminations, _op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od_, &c. 

P. --_P_ has but one uniform sound; as in _pin, slipper_; except in_cupboard, clapboard_, where it has the sound of _b_. It is mute in_psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt_. 

_Ph_ has the sound of _f_ in _philosophy, Philip_; and of _v_ in_nephew, Stephen_. 

Q. --_Q_ is sounded like _k_, and is always followed by _u_ pronouncedlike _w_; as in _quadrant, queen, conquest_. 

R. --_R_ has a rough sound; as in _Rome, river, rage_; and a smooth one;as in _bard, card, regard_. In the unaccented termination _re_, the _r_is sounded after the e; as _in fibre, centre_. 

S. --_S_ has a flat sound like _z_; as in _besom, nasal_; and, at thebeginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound; as in _saint, sister, sample_. It has the sound of _sh_ when preceded by the accent andanother s or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_; as in_expulsion, censure_. _S_ sounds like _zh_ when preceded by the accentand a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long _u_ as in _brasier, usual_. It is mute in _isle, corps, demesne, viscount_. 

T. --_T_ is sounded in _take, temper_. _T_ before _u_, when the accentprecedes, and generally before _eou_, sounds like _tsh_; as, _nature, virtue, righteous_, are pronounced _natshure, virtshue, richeus_. _Ti_before a vowel, preceded by the accent, has the sound of _sh_; as in_salvation, negotiation_; except in such words as _tierce, tiara_, &c. And unless an _s_ goes before; as, _question_; and excepting alsoderivatives from words ending in _ty_; as in _mighty, mightier_. 

_Th_, at the beginning, _middle_, and end of words, is sharp; as in_thick, panther, breath_. Exceptions; _then, booth, worthy_, &c. 

U. --_U_ has three sounds; a long; as in _mule, cubic_; a short; as in_dull, custard_; and an obtuse sound; as in _full, bushel_. It ispronounced like short _e_ in _bury_; and like short _i_ in _busy, business_. 

V. --_V_ has uniformly the sound of flat _f_; as in _vanity, love_. 

W. --_W_, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in _wo, beware_. _W_ is silent before _r_; as in _wry, wrap, wrinkle_; and alsoin _answer, sword_, &c. Before _h_ it is pronounced as if written afterthe _h_; as in _why, when, what_;--_hwy, hwen, hwat_. When heard as avowel, it takes the sound of _u_; as in _draw, crew, now_. 

X. --_X_ has a sharp sound, like _ks_, when it ends a syllable with theaccent on it; as, _exit, exercise_; or when it precedes an accentedsyllable which begins with any consonant except _h_; as, _excuse, extent_; but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or_h_, it has, generally, a flat sound, like _gz_; as in _exert, exhort_. _X_ has the sound of _Z_ at the beginning of proper names of Greekoriginal; as in _Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes_. 

Y. --_Y_, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as in _youth, York, yes, new-year_. When _y_ is employed as a vowel, it has exactly thesound that _i_ would have in the same situation; as in _rhyme, system, party, pyramid_. 

Z. --_Z_ has the sound of flat _s_; as in _freeze, brazen_. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

The following rules are deemed important in practice, although theyassist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-bookand dictionary, and by strict attention in reading. 

RULE I. Monosyllables ending in _f, l_, or _s_, double the final orending consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as _staff, mill, pass_. Exceptions; _of, if, is, as, lids, was, yes, his, this, us_, and _thus_. 

 _False Orthography for the learner to correct_. --Be thou like the gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. --The aged hero comes forth on his staf; his gray hair glitters in the beam. --Shal mortal man be more just than God?--Few know the value of health til they lose it. --Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. 

 And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat The vaulty heaven so high above our heads: I have more care to stay, than wil to go. 

RULE II. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but _f, l_, or _s_, neverdouble the final consonant when it is preceded by a _single_ vowel; as, _man, hat_. Exceptions; _add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr_, and _buzz_. 

 _False Orthography_. --None ever went sadd from Fingal. --He rejoiced over his sonn. --Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. --Many a trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth. 

 The weary sunn has made a golden sett, And, by the bright track of his golden carr, Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. 

RULE III. Words ending in _y_, form the plural of nouns, the persons ofverbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, andsuperlatives, by changing _y_ into _i_, when the _y_ is preceded by a_consonant_; as, _spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest, he carries;carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest_. 

The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_ that _i_ may not bedoubled; as, _carry, carrying_. 

But when _y_ is preceded by a _vowel_, in such instances as the above, it is not changed into _i_; as, _boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys_; exceptin the words _lay, pay_, and _say I_ from which are formed _laid, paid_, and _said_; and their compounds, _unpaid, unsaid_, &c. 

 _False Orthography_. --Our fancys should be governed by reason. --Thou wearyest thyself in vain. --He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. 

 Win straiing souls with modesty and love; Cast none away. The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. Ere fresh morning streak the east, we must be risen to reform yonder allies green. 

RULE IV. When words ending in _y_, assume an additional syllablebeginning with a consonant, the _y_, if it is preceded by a consonant, is commonly changed to _i_; as, _happy, happily, happiness_. 

But when _y_ is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is veryrarely changed to _i_; as, _coy, coyless; boy, boyish; boyhood; joy, joyless, joyful_. 

 _False Orthography_. --His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humors. --The vessel was heavyly laden. --When we act against conscience, we become the destroiers of our own peace. 

 Christiana, mayden of heroic mien! Star of the north! of northern stars the queen!

RULE V. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable that beginswith a vowel; as, _wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abetter_. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is _not_ on the lastsyllable, the consonant remains single; as, _to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden_. 

 _False Orthography_. --The business of to-day, should not be defered till to-morrow. --That law is annuled. --When we have outstriped our errors we have won the race. --By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. --The Christian Lawgiver has prohibited many things which the heathen philosophers allowed. 

 At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below. -- Thus mourned the hapless man; a thunderring sound Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. 

RULE VI. Words ending in double _l_, in taking _ness, less, ly_, or_ful_, after them, generally omit one _l_; as, _fulness, skilless, fullyskilful_. 

But words ending in any double letter but _l_, and taking _ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter double; as, _harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful_. 

 _False Orthography_. --A chillness generally precedes a fever. --He is wed to dullness. 

 The silent stranger stood amazed to see Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. 

 Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. --The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant as to the king. --The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. 

RULE VII. _Ness, less, ly_, or _ful_, added to words ending in silent_e_, does not cut it off; as, _paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful_;except in a few words; as, _duly, truly, awful_. 

 _False Orthography_. --Sedatness is becoming. 

 All these with ceasless praise his works behold. Stars rush: and final ruin fiercly drives Her ploughshare o'er creation! ------Nature made a pause, An aweful pause! prophetic of her end!

RULE VIII. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _ment_, the _e_ should not be cut off; as, _abatement, chastisement_. 

_Ment_, like other terminations, changes _y_ into _i_ when the _y_ ispreceded by a consonant; as, _accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment_. 

 _False Orthography_. --A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment. --Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. 

 To shun allurments is not hard, To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared. 

RULE IX. When words ending in silent _e_, assume the termination, _able_or _ible_, the _e_ should generally be cut off; as, _blame, blamable;cure, curable; sense, sensible_. But if _c_ or _g_ soft comes before _e_in the original word, the _e_ is preserved in words compounded with_able_; as, _peace, peaceable; change, changeable_. 

 _False Orthography_. --Knowledge is desireable. --Misconduct is inexcuseable. --Our natural defects are not chargable upon us. --We are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves. 

RULE X. When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending in silent_e_, the _e_ is almost always omitted; as, _place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish_. 

 _False Orthography_. --Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. --An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humor. 

 Conscience anticipateing time, Already rues th' unacted crime. One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. 

RULE XI. Compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as thesimple words of which they are compounded; as, _glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter_. Many words ending in double _l_, are exceptions tothis rule; as, _already, welfare, wilful, fulfil_; and also the words, _wherever, christmas, lammas, &c_. 

 _False Orthography_. --The Jew's pasover was instituted in A. M. 2513. --They salute one another by touching their forheads. --That which is some times expedient, is not allways so. 

 Then, in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain, There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man. Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. The head reclined, the loosened hair, The limbs relaxed, the mournful air:-- See, he looks up; a wofull smile Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile. 

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS. 

What is language?--How is language divided?--What is naturallanguage?--What are the elements of natural language in man?--Whereinconsists the language of brutes?--What is artificial language?--What isan idea?--What are words?--What is grammar?--What does Universal grammarexplain?--Wherein does Particular grammar differ from universal?--Whatis the standard of grammatical accuracy?--What is Philosophicalgrammar?--What is Practical grammar?--What is a principle of grammar?--Adefinition?--A rule?--What is English grammar?--Into how many parts isgrammar divided?--What does Orthography teach?

 * * * * *

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX

LECTURE II

OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 

ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words, their variousmodifications, and their derivation. 

SYNTAX treats of the agreement and government of words, and of theirproper arrangement in a sentence. 

The word ETYMOLOGY signifies the _origin_ or _pedigree of words_. 

_Syn_, a prefix from the Greek, signifies _together_. _Syn-tax_, means_placing together_; or, as applied in grammar, _sentence making_. 

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, andtheir judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us tocorrect and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principlesunfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymological knowledge, then, is aprerequisite to the study of Syntax; but, in parsing, under the head ofEtymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomesnecessary, therefore, in a practical work of this sort, to treat thesetwo parts of grammar in connexion. 

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would comprehend theexposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, theirwhole history, including their application to things in accordance withthe laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who applythem; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a processaltogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It wouldlead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediatelyderived, and even compel us to trace many words through those languagesto others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of research wouldbecome, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by oneman. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited viewsof this part of grammar. 

1. Etymology treats of the _classification_ of words. 

2. Etymology explains the _accidents_ or _properties_ peculiar to eachclass or sort of words, and their present _modifications_. Bymodifications, I mean the changes produced on their _endings_, inconsequence of their assuming different relations in respect to oneanother. These changes, such as fruit, fruit_s_, fruit'_s_; he, h_is_, h_im_; write, write_st_, write_th_, write_s_, wr_ote_, writ_ten_, writ_ing_, write_r_; a, a_n_; ample, ampl_y_, and the like, will beexplained in their appropriate places. 

3. Etymology treats of the _derivation_ of words; that is, it teachesyou _how one word comes from_, or _grows out of_ another. For example, from the word speak, come the words speak_est_, speak_eth_, speak_s_, speak_ing_, sp_oke_, spo_ken_, speak_er_, speak_er's_, speak_ers_. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except thelast three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each otheronly in the termination. These changes in termination are produced onthe word in order to make it correspond with the various _persons_ whospeak, the _number_ of persons, or the _time_ of speaking; as, _I_speak, _thou_ speak_est_, the _man_ speak_eth_, or speak_s_, the _men_speak, _I_ sp_oke_; The speak_er_ speak_s_ another speak_er's_ spe_ech_. 

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected with thesecond, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV, and in thePhilosophical notes; but I shall not treat largely of that branch ofderivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages. This isthe province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It isnot the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, totrace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, theMexican, nor the Persian; nor is it his province to explain theirmeaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; butit is his duty to explain their properties, their powers, theirconnexions, relations, dependancies, and, bearings, not at the period inwhich the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, norin the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but_at the particular period in which he writes_. His words are alreadyderived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is boundto take them and explain them as he finds them _in his day_, without anyregard to their ancient construction and application. 

CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to bethe legitimate object of the practical grammarian, to consult _practicalconvenience_. The true principle of classification seems to be, not areference to essential differences in the _primitive_ meaning of words, nor to their original combinations, but to the _manner in which they areat present employed_. In the early and rude state of society, mankindare quite limited in their knowledge, and having but few ideas tocommunicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in thetransmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas inshort, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those _connectives_, or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language byrefinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity andelegance. The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that everylanguage must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, thanin its barbarous state. 

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained, not by the_original_ signification of that word, but by its present _manner_ ofmeaning, or, rather, _the office which it performs in a sentence_. 

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which itrepresents, are called its _manner of meaning_. Thus, The painter dipshis _paint_ brush in _paint_, to _paint_ the carriage. Here, the word_paint_, is first employed to _describe_ the brush which the painteruses; in this situation it is, therefore, an _adjective_; secondly, to_name_ the mixture employed; for which reason it is a _noun_; and, lastly, to _express the action_ performed; it therefore, becomes a_verb_; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all theseapplications. This meaning, however, is applied in different ways; andthus the same word becomes different parts of speech. Richard took_water_ from the _water_ pot, to _water_ the plants. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats, first, of the _classification_ of words. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has beengreatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages. 

The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, andwords formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, maybe estimated at about _forty thousand_. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the NOUN or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, andINTERJECTION. 

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language areincluded in these ten classes: and what you have to do in acquiring aknowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with theseten parts of speech, and the rules of Syntax that apply to them. The_Noun_ and _Verb_ are the most important and leading parts of speech;therefore they are first presented: all the rest (except theinterjection) are either appendages or connectives of these two. As youproceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you morelabor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to becomefamiliar with all the minor parts of speech. 

The principal use of words is, to _name_ things, _compare_ them witheach other, and _express their actions_. 

_Nouns_, which are the names of entities or things, _adjectives_ whichdenote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them, andexpressing their qualities, and _verbs_, which express the actions andbeing of things, are the only classes of words necessarily recognisedin a philosophical view of grammar. But in a treatise which consults, mainly, the _practical_ advantages of the learner, it is believed, thatno classification will be found more convenient or accurate than theforegoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, inthis place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or agreater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating thesubject. I shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting thisarrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of wordsare respectively presented to you, for then you will be better preparedto appreciate my arguments. 

OF NOUNS. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing; as, _man, Charleston, knowledge_. 

Nouns are often improperly called _substantives_. A substantive is thename of a _substance_ only; but a noun is the name either of a_substance_ or a _quality_. 

_Noun_, derived from the Latin word _nomen_, signifies _name_. The nameof any thing [1] that exists, whether animate or inanimate, orwhich we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is a noun. _Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, fold, house, modesty, virtue, danger_, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguishthis part of speech from others, I will give you a _sign_, which will beuseful to you when you cannot tell it by the _sense_. Any word that willmake sense with _the_ before it, is a noun. Try the following words bythis sign, and see if they are nouns: tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understanding. _The_ tree, _the_ mountain, _the_ soul, andso on. You perceive, that they will make sense with _the_ prefixed;therefore you know they are _nouns_. There are, however, exceptions tothis rule, for some nouns will not make sense with _the_ prefixed. Theseyou will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their_making sense of themselves_; as, _goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality_. 

 [1] The word _thing_, from the Saxon verb _thingian_, to think, is almost unlimited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions; as, "To get drunk is a beastly _thing_. " In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature; but it denotes merely an action; therefore this action is the thing. 

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well asits reality; as, _nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, invisibility_. 

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, according totheir _manner_ of meaning; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in theconcluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared tocomprehend it. 

NOUNS are of two kinds, common and proper. 

A _Common noun_ is the name of a sort or species of things; as, _man, tree, river_. 

A _Proper noun_ is the name of an individual; as, _Charles, Ithaca, Ganges_. 

A noun signifying many, is called a _collective noun_, or _noun ofmultitude_; as, the _people_, the _army_. 

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. Forexample: _boy_ is a common noun, because it is a name applied to _all_boys; but _Charles_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of an_individual_ boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet youknow it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is _not_ given to allboys. _Mississippi_ is a proper noun, because it is the name of anindividual river; but _river_ is a common noun, because it is the nameof a _species_ of things, and the name _river_ is common to _all_rivers. 

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common; as, _tree_, the genus; _oak, ash, chestnut, poplar_, different species; and red _oak_, white _oak_, black _oak_, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt, is acommon noun; but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a propernoun. The _words_ person, place, river, mountain, lake, &c. Are _commonnouns_, because they are the names of whole _species_, or classes ofthings containing many sorts; but the _names_ of persons, places, rivers, mountains, lakes, &c. Are _proper nouns_, because they denote_individuals_; as, Augustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. 

_Physician, lawyer, merchant_, and _shoemaker_, are common nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. _God_ and _Lord_, whenapplied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper; but when employed todenote heathen or false _gods_, or temporal _lords_, they are common. The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal. 

 NOTES. 

 1. When _proper_ nouns have an article annexed to them, they are used after the manner of _common_ nouns; as, "Bolivar is styled _the_ Washington of South America. "

 2. _Common_ nouns are sometimes used to signify _individuals_, when articles or pronouns are prefixed to them; as, "_The_ boy is studious; _That_ girl is discreet. " In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns. 

 3. _Common_ nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following classes: _Nouns of Multitude_; as, The people, the parliament: _Verbal or participial nouns_; as, The beginning, reading, writing; and _Abstract nouns_, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances; as, knowledge, virtue, goodness. Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration appears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered _apart_ (that is, abstracted) _from_ the substance or being to which it belongs; but an adjective denotes a quality _joined_ (adjected) _to_ the substance or being to which it belongs. Thus, _whiteness_ and _white_ both denote the same quality; but we speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word _white_ always in reference to the noun to which it belongs; as, _white_ paper, _white_ mouse. 

 4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub-divisions of nouns; such, for example, as the following, which appear to be more complex than useful: _Natural nouns_, or names of things formed by nature; as, man, beast, water, air: 2. _Artificial nouns_, or names of things formed by art; as, book, vessel, house: 3. _Personal nouns_, or those which stand for human beings; as, man, woman, Edwin: 4. _Neuter nouns_, or those which denote things inanimate; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. The following, however, is quite a rational division: _Material nouns_ are the names of things formed of matter; as, stone, book: _Immaterial nouns_ are the names of things having no substance; as, hope, immortality. 

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

GENDER is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three genders, themasculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The _masculine gender_ denotes males; as, a _man_, a _boy_. 

The _feminine gender_ denotes females; as, a _woman_, a _girl_. 

The _neuter gender_ denotes things without sex; as, a _hat_, a _stick_. 

_Neuter_ means _neither:_ therefore neuter gender signifies neithergender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, neuter gendermeans _no gender_. Strictly speaking, then, as there are but two sexes, nouns have but _two_ genders; but for the sake of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, by calling that a gender which is _no_gender. The English and the pure Persian, appear to be the onlylanguages which observe, in the distinction of sex, the natural divisionof nouns. --The genders of nouns are so easily known, that a fartherexplanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in thefollowing

 NOTES. 

 1. The same noun is sometimes masculine _and_ feminine, and sometimes masculine _or_ feminine. The noun _parents_ is of the masculine _and_ feminine gender. The nouns _parent, associate, neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, fish, &c. _ if doubtful, are of the masculine _or_ feminine gender. 

 2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, when used figuratively, or _personified_, converted into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are generally rendered masculine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious; as, the _sun, time, death, sleep, winter, &c. _ Those, again, are generally feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable; as, the _earth, moon, church, boat, vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, peace, &c. _ This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally adhered to in the English language; but, in some instances, the poet applies the sex according to his fancy. 

 The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways:

 1. _By different words_; as, _Masculine_. _Feminine_. Bachelor maid Boar sow Boy girl Brother sister Buck doe Bull cow Cock hen Dog bitch Drake duck Earl countess Father mother Friar nun Gander goose Hart roe Horse mare Husband wife King queen Lad lass Lord lady Man woman Master mistress Milter spawner Nephew niece Ram ewe Singer songstress or singer Sloven slut Son daughter Stag hind Uncle aunt Wizard witch Sir madam

 2. _By a difference in termination_; as, Abbot abbess Actor actress Administrator administratrix Adulterer adulteress Ambassador ambassadress Arbiter arbitress Auditor auditress Author authoress Baron baroness Benefactor benefactress Bridegroom bride Canon canoness Caterer cateress Chanter chantress Conductor conductress Count countess Czar czarina Deacon deaconess Detracter detractress Director directress Duke dutchess Elector electress Embassador embassadress Emperor emperess Enchanter enchantress Executor executrix Fornicator fornicatress God goddess Governor governess Heir heiress Hero heroine Host hostess Hunter huntress Inheritor inheritress or inheritrix Instructor instructress Jew Jewess Lion lioness Marquis marchioness Mayor mayoress Patron patroness Peer peeress Poet poetess Priest priestess Prince princess Prior prioress Prophet prophetess Proprietor proprietress Protector protectress Shepherd shepherdess Songster songstress Sorcerer sorceress Suiter suitress Sultan sultaness or sultana Tiger tigress Testator testatrix Traitor traitress Tutor tutoress Tyrant tyranness Victor victress Viscount viscountess Votary votaress Widower widow

 3. _By prefixing another word_; as, A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow A man-servant A maid-servant A he-goat A she-goat A he-bear A she-bear A male-child A female-child Male-descendants Female-descendants

PERSON. 

PERSON is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb. 

The _first person_ denotes the speaker. 

The _second person_ denotes the person or thing spoken to; as, "Listen, _earth!"_

The _third person_ denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, "The_earth_ thirsts. "

Nouns have but _two_ persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, the _pronoun I_ or _we_ is always used; therefore nouns can never be inthe _first_ person. In examples like the following, some philologistssuppose the noun to be in the _first_ person:--"This may certify, thatI, _Jonas Taylor_, do hereby give and grant, " &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks _of_himself; consequently the noun is of the _third person_. 

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thoughtis requisite; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. If I say, my _son_, have you seen the young man? you perceive that thenoun _son_ is of the _second_ person, because I address myself _to_ him;that is, he is spoken _to;_ but the noun _man_ is of the _third_person, because he is spoken _of_. Again, if I say, young _man_, haveyou seen my son? _man_ is of the _second_ person, and _son_ is of the_third_. 

"Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired _sun_ ofthe sky?"

"_Father_, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friendshipbetween us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in hiswig-wam behind the western waters. "

 "Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies! Sink down, ye _mountains_, and, ye _valleys_, rise!" "Eternal _Hope_, thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore. "

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, are of the _second_ person, and, as you will hereafter learn, in thenominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the _third_ person. 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of twonumbers, the singular and the plural. 

The _singular_ number implies but one; as, a _book_. 

The _plural_ number implies more than one; as, _books_. 

 NOTES. 

 1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form; as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassion, &c. ; others only in the plural form; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, thanks, wages, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c. 

 2. Some words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

 3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to the singular; as, dove, doves; face, faces; but sometimes we add _es_ in the plural; as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; cargo, cargoes. 

 4. Nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_, are rendered plural by a change of that termination into _ves_; as, half, halves; wife, wives: except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form their plurals by the addition of _s_. Those ending in _ff_, have the regular plural; as, ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves. 

 5. Nouns ending in _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the same syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural; as, beauty, beauties; fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, where there is another vowel in the syllable; as, key, keys; delay, delays; attorney, attorneys; valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys. 

 6. _Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics, hydraulics_, &c. Are construed either as singular or plural nouns. 

 7. The word _news_ is always singular. The nouns _means, alms_, and _amends_, though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in signification. Antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutiæ are always plural. _Bandit_ is now used as the singular of Banditti. 

 8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general rule; thus, man, men; woman, women; child, children; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; foot, feet; mouse, mice; louse, lice; brother, brothers or brethren; cow, cows or kine; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice _for play, _ dies _for coining;_ pea and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but _peas_ and _fishes_ when we refer to the number; as, six _peas_, ten _fishes_. 

 9. The following compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handfuls; cupful, cupfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls:--brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; court-martial, courts-martial. 

 The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the languages from which they are adopted. 

 _Singular_ _Plural. _ Antithesis antitheses Apex apices Appendix appendixes _or_ appendices Arcanum arcana Automaton automata Axis axes Basis bases Beau beaux _or_ beaus Calx calces _or_ calxes Cherub cherubim _or_ cherubs Crisis crises Criterion criteria Datum data Diæresis diæreses Desideratum desiderata Effluvium effluvia Ellipsis ellipses Emphasis emphases Encomium encomia _or_ encomiums Erratum errata Genius genii [2] Genus genera Hypothesis hypotheses Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui Index indices _or_ indexes [3] Lamina laminae Magus magi Memorandum memoranda _or_ memorandums Metamorphosis metamorphoses Parenthesis parentheses Phenomenon phenomena Radius radii _or_ radiuses Stamen stamina Seraph seraphim _or_ seraphs Stimulus stimuli Stratum strata Thesis theses Vertex vertices Vortex vortices _or_ vortexes

[2] Genii, imaginary spirits: geniuses, persons of great mentalabilities. 

[3] Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, when referring to algebraic quantities. 

CASE. 

Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns havethree cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

I deem the essential qualities of _case_, in English, to consist, not inthe _changes_ or _inflections_ produced on nouns and pronouns, but inthe various offices which they perform in a sentence, by assumingdifferent positions in regard to other words. In accordance with thisdefinition, these cases can be easily explained on reasoningprinciples, founded in the nature of things. 

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend whatis meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple; but in thedifferent grammars it assumes as many meanings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by _case_? In speaking of a horse, for instance, we sayhe is in a good _case_, when he is fat, and in a bad _case_, when he islean, and needs more oats; and in this sense we apply the term _case_ todenote the _state_ or _condition_ of the horse. So, when we place a nounbefore a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the _nominativecase_; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say ithas another _case_; that is, it assumes a new _position_ or _situation_in the sentence: and this we call the _objective_ case. Thus, the _boy_gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as _acting_. He is, therefore, in the _nominative_ case. But when I say, Jane struck the_boy_, I do not represent the boy as the _actor_, but as the _object_ ofthe action. He is, therefore, in a new _case_ or _condition_. And when Isay, This is the _boy's_ hat, I do not speak of the boy either as_acting_ or as _acted upon_; but as possessing something: for whichreason he is in the _possessive_ case. Hence, it is clear, that nounshave three cases or positions. 

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparablyconnected with the verb, it is impossible for you to understand themuntil you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech. Iwill, therefore, now give you a partial description of the verb inconnexion with the noun; which will enable me to illustrate the cases ofthe noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature. 

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse witheach other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give _names_ tothe various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the origin ofthe first part of speech, which we denominate the _noun_. But merely toname the objects which they beheld or thought of, was not sufficient fortheir purpose. They perceived that these objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and soon. They perceived that plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity of another part of speech, whose office it should beto express these existences and actions. This second class of words wecall

VERBS. 

A verb is a word which signifies to BE, to DO, or to SUFFER; as, I _am_;I _rule_; I _am ruled_. 

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and neuter. They are alsodivided into regular, irregular, and defective. 

The term _verb_ is derived from the Latin word _verbum_, which signifiesa _word_. This part of speech is called a _verb_ or _word_, because itis deemed the most important word in every sentence: and without a verband nominative, either expressed or implied, no sentence can exist. Thenoun is the original and leading part of speech; the verb comes next inorder, and is far more complex than the noun. These two are the mostuseful in the language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two, and, asyou will hereafter learn, of minor importance. 

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and division of theverb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be found as_convenient_ as any other. I adopt them, therefore, to be consistentwith the principle, that, in arranging the materials of this treatise, Ishall not alter or reject any established definition, rule, or principleof grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some _practical advantage_ tothe learner is thereby gained. The following, some consider a gooddefinition. 

A VERB is a word which _expresses affirmation_. 

An _active verb_ expresses action; and

The _nominative case_ is the actor, or subject of the verb; as, _Johnwrites_. 

In this example, which is the _verb?_ You know it is the word _writes_, because this word signifies to _do;_ that is, it expresses _action_, therefore, according to the definition, it is an _active verb_. And youknow, too, that the noun _John_ is the _actor_, therefore John is in the_nominative case_ to the verb writes. In the expressions, The manwalks--The boy plays--Thunders roll--- Warriors fight--you perceive thatthe words _walks, plays, roll_, and _fight_, are _active verbs;_ and youcannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns _man, boy, thunders_, and_warriors_, are in the _nominative case. _

As no _action_ can be produced without some agent or moving cause, itfollows, that every active verb must have some _actor_ or _agent_. This_actor, doer_, or _producer of the action_, is the nominative. _Nominative_, from the Latin _nomino_, literally signifies to _name;_but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means thenoun or pronoun which is the _subject_ of affirmation. This subject ornominative may be _active, passive_, or _neuter_, as hereafterexemplified. 

A _neuter verb_ expresses neither action nor passion, but _being_, or _astate of being_; as, _John sits_. 

Now, in this example, _John_ is not represented as _an actor_, but, asthe _subject_ of the verb _sits_, therefore John is in the _nominativecase_ to the verb. And you know that the word _sits_ does not express_apparent action_, but a _condition of being;_ that is, it representsJohn in a particular _state of existence;_ therefore _sits_ is a _neuterverb_. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I informed you, that_neuter_ means _neither;_ from which it follows, that neuter genderimplies neither gender; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you learn, that _neuter_, when appliedto verbs, means neither of the other two classes; that is, a _neuter_verb is one which is neither active nor passive. In these examples, Theman stands--The lady lives--The child sleeps--The world exists--thewords _stands, lives, sleeps_, and _exists_, are _neuter verbs;_ and thenouns, _man, lady, child_, and _world_, are all in the _nominativecase_, because each is the _subject_ of a verb. Thus you perceive, thatwhen a noun is in the nominative case to an _active_ verb, it is the_actor;_ and when it is nominative to a _neuter_ verb, it is _not_ anactor, but the _subject_ of the verb. 

Some neuter verbs express _being in general;_ as, The man _is_; Kingdoms_exist_. Others express _being in some particular state_; as, The man_stands, sits, lies_, or _hangs_. 

I will now give you two _signs_, which will enable you to distinguishthe verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot tell it by itssignification. Any word that will make sense with _to_ before it, is averb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, to hear, to ponder, tolive, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word that will _conjugate_, is averb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs; I write, thou writest, hewrites; I smile, &c. But the words, boy, lady, child, and world, willnot make sense with _to_ prefixed--_to_ boy, _to_ lady, _to_ world, isnonsense. Neither will they con_jugate_--I lady, thou ladiest, &c. Isworse than nonsense. Hence you perceive, that these words are _not_verbs. There are some exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimesused as nouns. This will be explained by and by. 

To verbs belong _number, person, mood_, and _tense_. 

At present I shall speak only of the number and person of verbs; buthereafter I will give you a full explanation of all their properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead you into the_intricacies_ of the science, until, by gradual and easy progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them. Only suchprinciples will be elucidated, as you are prepared to understand at thetime they are unfolded before you. You must not be too anxious to getalong _rapidly_; but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with oneprinciple, before you undertake another. This lecture will qualify youfor the next. 

NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. You recollect, that the nominative is the_actor_ or _subject_, and the active verb is the _action_ performed bythe nominative. By this you perceive, that a very intimate connexion orrelation exists between the nominative case and the verb. If, therefore, only _one_ creature or thing acts, only _one_ action, at the sameinstant, can be done; as, The _girl writes_. The nominative _girl_ ishere of the singular number, because it signifies but one person; andthe verb _writes_ denotes but one action, which the girl performs;therefore the verb _writes_ is of the _singular_ number, agreeing withits nominative _girl_. When the nominative case is _plural_, the verbmust be _plural_; as, _girls write_. Take notice, the _singular_ verbends in _s_, but the noun is generally _plural_ when it ends in _s_;thus, The girl _writes_--the _girls_ write. 

_Person_, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs _not_ to _verbs_, but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb must agreewith its nominative in _person_, as well as in number; that is, the verbmust be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the_first, second_, or _third_ person of the noun or pronoun which is itsnominative. 

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with itsnominative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, It; We, Ye or You, They, are _personal pronouns_. _I_ is of the _first_ person, and_singular_ number; _Thou_ is _second_ person, _sing. _; _He, She_, or_It_, is _third_ per. _sing. _; _We_ is _first_ per. _plural_; _Ye_ or_You_ is _second_ per. _plural_; _They_ is _third_ per. _plural_. Thesepronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same officethat the nouns would for which they stand. When placed before the verb, they are, therefore, the _nominatives_ to the verb. 

Notice particularly, the different variations or endings of the verb, asit is thus conjugated in the INDICATIVE MOOD, PRESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular_. _Plural_. 

1. _Per_. I walk, 1. _Per_. We Walk, 2. _Per_. Thou walk_est_, 2. _Per_. Ye _or_ you walk, 3. _Per_. He walk_s_, _or_ 3. _Per_. They walk, or the boy walk_s_, the boys walk. _or_ walk_eth_. 

This display of the verb shows you, that whenever it ends in _est_, itis of the _second_ person _singular_; but when the verb ends in _s_, or_eth_, it is of the _third_ person singular. _Walkest, ridest, standest_, are of the second person singular; and _walks_ or _walketh, rides_ or _rideth, stands_ or _standeth_, are of the third personsingular. 

I have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verbmust be; when the nominative is plural, the verb must be; and when thenominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of thesame person. If you look again at the foregoing conjugation of _walk_, you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the _singular_, in order to agree in _form_ with the first, second, and third person ofits nominative; but in the _plural_ it does not vary its endings fromthe first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in _sense_ with itsnominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a littlemind, and you will perceive that _agreement_ and _government_ inlanguage do not consist _merely_ in the _form_ of words. Now, is it notclear, that when I say, I _walk_, the verb walk is _singular_, becauseit expresses but _one_ action? And when I say, Two men _walk_, is it notequally apparent, that walk is _plural_, because it expresses _two_actions? In the sentence, Ten men _walk_, the verb _walk_ denotes _ten_actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that theremust be as many _actions_ as there are _actors_; and that the verb, whenit has _no form_ or _ending_ to show it, is as strictly plural, as whenit has. --So, in the phrase, _We_ walk, the verb walk is _first_ person, because it expresses the actions performed by the _speakers: Ye_ or_you_ walk, the verb is _second_ person, denoting the actions of thepersons _spoken to;_ third person, _They_ walk. The verb, then, whencorrectly written, always agrees, in _sense_, with its nominative innumber and person. 

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither of which can beunderstood without a knowledge of the other. It therefore becomesnecessary to explain them both, in the same lecture. You have beenalready informed, that nouns have three cases; the nominative, thepossessive, and the objective. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. The _possessive case_ denotes the possessor ofsomething; as, This is _John's_ horse. This expression implies, that_John_ is the _owner_ or _possessor_ of the horse; and, that horse isthe _property_ which he possesses. 

When I say, These are the _men's_, and those, the _boys'_ hats, the twowords, "boys' hats, " plainly convey the idea, if they have any meaningat all, that the boys _own_ or _possess_ the hats. "Samuel Badger sells_boys'_ hats. " Who _owns_ the hats? Mr. Badger. How is that factascertained? Not by the words, "boys' hats, " which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they are _Mr. Badger's_ hats, nor that they are _for_boys, but that they are hats _of_, or _belonging to_, or _possessed by_boys. But we _infer_ from the _words connected_ with the phrase, "boys'hats, " that the boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, inthe actual possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated. 

In the phrases, _fine_ hats, _coarse_ hats, _high-crowned_ hats, _broad-brimmed_ hats, _woollen, new, ten, some, these, many_ hats, thewords in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, ordefine the term _hats;_ but the term _boys'_ does not _describe_ orlimit the meaning of _hats. Boys'_, therefore, is not, as some suppose, an adjective. 

"The _slave's_ master. " Does the slave possess the master? Yes. Theslave _has_ a master. If he _has_ him, then, he _possesses_ him;--hesustains that relation to him which we call possession. 

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having anapostrophe, and generally an _s_ after it; thus, _John's_, hat; the_boy's_ coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in _s_, the apostrophe is added, but no additional _s_; as, "_Boys'_ hats;_Eagles'_ wings. " When a singular noun ends in _ss_, the apostropheonly is added; as, "For _goodness'_ sake; for _righteousness'_ sake;"except the word witness; as, "The _witness's_ testimony. " When a noun inthe possessive case ends in _ence_, the _s_ is omitted, but theapostrophe is retained; as, "For _conscience'_ sake. "

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture_three_ times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to_remember_, what you read. In reading, proceed thus: read one sentenceover slowly, and then look off the book, and repeat it two or threetimes over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceedin the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presumeto think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you; for, unless you follow them strictly, you need not expect to make rapidprogress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to myinstructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge ofgrammar in a short time. --When you shall have complied with thisrequisition, you may commit the following _order of parsing a noun_, and_the order of parsing a verb_; and then you will be prepared to parse oranalyze the following examples. 

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. 

Do you recollect the meaning of the word _analysis?_ If you do not, Iwill explain if: and first, I wish you to remember, that analysis is thereverse of synthesis. _Synthesis_ is the act of combining simples so asto form a whole or compound. Thus, in putting together letters so as toform syllables, syllables so as to form words, words so as to formsentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process iscalled synthetic. _Analysis_, on the contrary, is the act ofdecomposition; that is, the act of separating any thing compounded intoits simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, isto separate from one another and classify the different words of whichit is composed; and to analyze or _parse_ a word, means to enumerate anddescribe all its various properties, and its grammatical relations withrespect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all itsinflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear tobe of little importance; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter findit of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct, errors in composition. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The _order of parsing_ a NOUN, is--a noun, and why?--common, proper, orcollective, and why?--gender, and why?--person, and why?--number, andwhy?--case, and why?--RULE:--decline it. 

_The order of parsing_ a VERB, is--a verb, and why?--active, passive, or neuter, and why?--if _active_--transitive or intransitive, andwhy?--if _passive_--how is it formed?--regular, irregular, or defective, and why?--mood, and why?--tense, and why?--person and number, andwhy?--with what does it agree?--RULE:--conjugate it. 

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, byapplying the definitions and rules, I shall answer all those questionsgiven in the order. If you have _perfectly committed_ the order ofparsing a noun and verb, you may proceed with me; but, recollect, youcannot parse a verb _in full_, until you shall have had a more completeexplanation of it. 

 _John's hand trembles_. 

_John's_ is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person--proper, thename of an individual--masculine gender, it denotes a male--thirdperson, spoken of--singular number, it implies but one--and in thepossessive case, it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun"hand, " according to

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by thenoun it possesses_. 

Declined--Sing. Nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural--nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. 

_Hand_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort orspecies of things--neuter gender, it denotes a thing without sex--thirdperson, spoken of--sing. Number, it implies but one--and in thenominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb "trembles, " andgoverns it agreeably to

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb:_--that is, the nominativedetermines the number and person of the verb. 

Declined--Sing. Nom. Hand, poss. Hand's, obj. Hand. Plur. Nom. Hands, poss. Hands', obj. Hands. 

_Trembles_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, it expressesaction--third person, singular number, because the nominative "hand" iswith which it agrees, according to

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_. 

You must not say that the verb is of the third person because _it isspoken of_. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its nominative is. 

Conjugated--First pers. Sing. I tremble, 2 pers. Thou tremblest, 3 pers. He trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. We tremble, 2 pers. Ye or you tremble, 3 pers. They or the hands tremble. 

Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has overanother, in causing that other word to be in some _particular case, number, person, mood_, or _tense_. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

RULE 3. _The nominative case governs the verb_. 

If you employ the pronoun _I_, which is of the _first_ person, singularnumber, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. Sing, thus, I _smile_; and when your nominative is _second_ pers. Sing, your verb must be; as, thou smil_est_. Why, in the latter instance, doesthe ending of the verb change to _est_? Because the nominative changes. And if your nominative is _third_ person, the verb will vary again;thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that _thenominative governs the verb_; that is, the nominative has power tochange the _form_ and _meaning_ of the verb, in respect to num. Andperson. Government, thus far, is evinced in the _form_ of the words, aswell as in the sense. 

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person_. 

It is improper to say, thou _hear_, the men _hears_. Why improper?Because _hear_ is _first_ pers. And the nominative _thou_ is _second_pers. _Hears_ is singular, and the nom. _men_ is _plural_. Rule 4thsays, _The verb must agree with its nominative_. The expressions should, therefore, be, thou hear_est_, the men _hear_; and then the verb would_agree_ with its nominatives. But _why_ must the verb agree with itsnominative? Why must we say, thou talk_est_, the man talks, men _talk_?Because the genius of our language, and the common consent of those whospeak it, _require_ such a construction: and this _requisition_ amountsto a _law_ or _rule_. This _rule_, then, is founded in _the nature ofthings_, and sanctioned by _good usage_. 

RULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by thenoun which it possesses_. 

It is correct to say, The _man_ eats, _he_ eats; but we cannot say, the_man_ dog eats, _he_ dog eats. Why not? Because the man is hererepresented as the _possessor_, and _dog_, the _property_, or _thingpossessed_; and the genius of our language requires, that when we add tothe possessor, the _thing_ which he is represented as possessing, thepossessor shall take a particular form to show its _case_, or _relationto the property_; thus, The _man's_ dog eats, _his_ dog eats. Youperceive, then, that the _added_ noun, denoting the thing possessed, haspower _to change the form_ of the noun or pronoun denoting thepossessor, according to RULE 12. Thus, by adding dog in the precedingexamples, _man_ is changed to _man's_, and _he_, to _his_. 

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quitefamiliar to you; and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and_systematically_, the following exercises. When you parse, you mayspread the Compendium before you; and, if you have not already committedthe definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. This mode of procedure will enable you to learn _all_ the definitionsand rules by applying them to practice. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Rain descends--Rains descend--Snow falls--Snows fall--Thunderrolls--Thunders roll--Man's works decay--Men's labors cease--John's dogbarks--Eliza's voice trembles--Julia's sister's child improves--Peter'scousin's horse limps. 

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a _neuter_ verb, which verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect. 

 _"Birds repose_ on the branches of trees. "

_Birds_ is a noun, the name of a thing or creature--common, the name ofa genus or class--masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both malesand females--third person, spoken of--plural number, it implies morethan one--and in the nominative case, it is the _subject_ of the verb"repose, " and governs it according to RULE 3. _The nominative casegoverns the verb_. Declined--Sing. Nom. Bird, poss. Bird's, obj. Bird. Plural, nom. Birds, poss. Birds', obj. Birds. 

_Repose_ is a verb, a word that signifies to _be_--neuter, it expressesneither action nor passion, but a state of being--third person, pluralnumber, because the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative in numberand person_. 

Declined--1. Pers. Sing. I repose, 2. Pers. Thou reposest, 3. Pers. Hereposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. Pers. We repose, 2. Pers. Ye oryou repose, 3. Pers. They repose, or birds repose. 

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by_italics_, in the following

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The _book lies_ on the desk--The _cloak hangs_ on the wall--_Man's daysare_ few--_Cathmor's warriors sleep_ in death--_Caltho reposes_ in thenarrow house--Jocund _day stands_ tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. The_sunbeams rest_ on the grave where her _beauty sleeps_. 

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that follow, _five or six times over_, if you please. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. --ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

The _objective_ case expresses the object of an action or of arelation. It generally follows a transitive verb, a participle, or apreposition. 

A noun is in the objective case when it is the _object_ of something. Atpresent I shall explain this case only as the object of an _action_; butwhen we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition, I will alsoillustrate it as the object of a _relation_. 

An active verb is _transitive_ when the action passes over from thesubject or nominative to an object; as, Richard _strikes_ John. 

_Transitive_ means _passing_. In this sentence the action of the verb_strikes_ is _transitive_, because it _passes over_ from the nominativeRichard to the object John; and you know that the noun John is in the_objective_ case, because it is _the object of the action_ expressed bythe active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. Forexample: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, thatGallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object inview. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileoinvented what? The telescope. _Telescope_, then, is the real object ofthe action, denoted by the transitive verb invented; and, therefore, telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse _kicks_ theservant--Carpenters _build_ houses--Ossian _wrote_ poems--Columbus_discovered_ America--you readily perceive, that the verbs _kick, build, wrote_, and _discovered_, express transitive actions; and you cannot beat a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case:--they are_servant, houses, poems_, and _America_. 

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by thefollowing rule: the nominative _does something_; the objective _hassomething done to it_. The nominative generally comes _before_ the verb;and the objective, _after_ it. When I say, George struck the servant, _George_ is in the nominative, and _servant_ is in the objective case;but, when I say, The servant struck George, _servant_ is in thenominative case, and _George_ is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that _Case_ means the different state or situation of nouns with regardto other words. 

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you anexplanation of the participle and preposition. 

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes in thenominative case _independent_, sometimes in the nominative caseabsolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and sometimes in thenominative or objective case after the neuter to _be_, or after anactive-intransitive or passive verb. These cases are illustrated inLecture X. And in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax. 

ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

An active verb is _transitive_, when the action terminates on an object:but

An active verb is _intransitive_, when the action does _not_ terminateon an object; as, John _walks_. 

You perceive that the verb _walks_, in this example, is _intransitive_, because the action does not pass over to an object; that is, the actionis confined to the agent John. The following _sign_ will generallyenable you to distinguish a _transitive_ verb from an _intransitive_. Any verb that will make sense with the words _a thing_ or _a person_, after it, is _transitive_. Try these verbs by the sign, _love, help, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome_. Thus, you can say, I love _a person_or _thing_--I can help _a person_ or _thing_--and so on. Hence you knowthat these verbs are transitive. But an intransitive verb will not makesense with this sign, which fact will be shown by the followingexamples: _smile, go, come, play, bark, walk, fly_. We cannot say, if wemean to speak English, I smile a _person_ or _thing_--I go _a person_ or_thing_:--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive, butintransitive. 

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will have aclear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs. Before I close this subject, however, it is necessary farther to remark, that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a_mental_ or _moral_ action; and others, a _corporeal_ or _physical_action. Verbs expressing the different affections or operations of themind, denote moral actions; as, Brutus _loved_ his country; James_hates_ vice; We _believe_ the tale:--to _repent_, to _relent_, to_think_, to _reflect_, to _mourn_, to _muse_. Those expressing theactions produced by matter, denote physical actions; as, The _dog hears_the bell; Virgil _wrote_ the Aenead; Columbus _discovered_ America;--to_see_, to _feel_, to _taste_, to _smell_, to _run_, to _talk_, to _fly_, to _strike_. In the sentence, Charles _resembles_ his father, the verb_resembles_ does not appear to express any action at all; yet theconstruction of the sentence, and the office which the verb performs, are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an _active-transitive_verb, governing the noun _father_ in the objective case. This you mayeasily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a_direct reference_ to its object. The following verbs are of thischaracter: _Have, own, retain_; as, I _have_ a book. 

Active _in_transitive verbs are frequently made _transitive_. When Isay, The birds _fly_, the verb _fly_ is _in_transitive; but when I say, The boy _flies_ the kite, the verb _fly_ is _transitive_, and governsthe noun _kite_ in the objective case. Almost any active intransitiveverb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse_walks_ rapidly; The boy _runs_ swiftly; My friend _lives_ well; The man_died_ of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are _in_transitive;in the following they are _transitive_: The man _walks_ his horse; Theboy _ran_ a race; My friend _lives_ a holy life; Let me _die_ the deathof the righteous. 

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deemedsufficiently critical for practical purposes; but if we dip a littledeeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which donot appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art hasdrawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almostevery verb has either a _personal_ or a _verbal_ object, expressed orimplied. Verbal objects, which are the _effects_ or _productions_resulting from the actions, being necessarily implied, are seldomexpressed. 

The fire _burns_. If the fire burns, it must burn _wood, coal, tallow_, or some other combustible substance. The man _laughs_. Laughs what?Laughs _laughter_ or _laugh_. They _walk_; that is, They walk or take_walks_. Rivers flow (move or roll _them-selves_ or their _waters_)into the ocean. 

 "I _sing_ the shady _regions_ of the west. "

 "And _smile_ the _wrinkles_ from the brow of age. "

The child _wept itself_ sick; and then, by taking (or _sleeping_) ashort _nap_, it _slept itself_ quiet and well again. "He will soon_sleep_ his everlasting _sleep"_; that is, "He will _sleep_ the _sleep_of death. "

Thinkers think _thoughts_; Talkers talk or employ _words, talk, _ or_speeches_; The rain rains _rain_. "Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord_rained fire_ and _brimstone_. " "I must _go_ the whole _length_. " "Ishall soon _go_ the _way_ of all the earth. "

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attentively;after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercisescontaining nouns in the three cases, and active-transitive verbs. 

 The printer _prints_ books. 

_Prints_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expressesaction--transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer"to the object "books"--third pers. Sing. Numb. Because the nominativeprinter is with which it agrees. 

RULE 4. _The verb must agree with its nominative case in number andperson_. 

Declined--1. Pers. Sing. I print, 2. Pers. Thou printest, 3. Pers. Heprints, or the printer prints, and so on. 

_Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, the name of a sort ofthings, --neut. Gend. It denotes a thing without sex--third pers. Spokenof--plur. Num. It implies more than one--and in the objective case, itis the object of the action, expressed by the active-transitive verb"prints, " and is governed by it according to

RULE 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case_. 

The noun _books_ is thus declined--Sing. Nom. Book, poss. Book's, obj. Book--Plur. Nom. Books, poss. Books', obj. Books. 

RULE 20. Transitive verbs _govern_ the objective case; that is, they_require_ the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case; andthis requisition is government. Pronouns have a particular _form_ tosuit each case; but nouns have not. We cannot say, She _struck he_; Igave the book _to they_. Why not? Because the genius of our languagerequires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition (_to_ isa preposition) to assume that _form_ which we call the _objective_ formor case. Accordingly, the construction should be, She struck _him_; Igave the book to _them_. --Read, again, the illustration of "government"on page 52. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

_Nom. Case. --Trans. Verb--Poss. Case--Obj. Case. _Julius prints childrens' primers. Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. The servant beats the man's horse. The horse kicks the servant's master. The boy struck that man's child. The child lost those boys' ball. The tempest sunk those merchants' vessels. Pope translated Homer's Illiad. Cicero procured Milo's release. Alexander conquered Darius' army. Perry met the enemy's fleet. Washington obtained his country's freedom. 

 NOTE 1. The words _the, that, those_, and _his_, you need not parse. 2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a noun understood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson. ]

As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it becomesnecessary to present, in the next place, the declension of nouns, foryou must decline every noun you parse. _Declension_ means putting a nounthrough the different cases: and you will notice, that the possessivecase varies from the nominative in its termination, or ending, but the_objective_ case ends like the nominative. The nominative and objectivecases of nouns, must, therefore, be ascertained by their situation inthe sentence, or by considering the office they perform. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

 SING. PLUR. 

_Nom. _ king kings_Poss. _ king's kings'_Obj. _ king. Kings. 

_Nom. _ man men_Poss. _ man's men's_Obj. _ man. Men. 

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples, (except_the, that, those_, and _his_) you may proceed with me and parse theexamples in the following exercises, in which are presented nouns andactive-intransitive verbs. 

 "My _flock increases_ yearly. "

_Flock_ is a noun, a name denoting animals--a noun of multitude, itsignifies many in one collective body--masculine and feminine gender, denoting both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, itdenotes but one flock--and in the nominative case, it is the activeagent of the verb "increases, " and governs it, according to RULE 3, _Thenominative case governs the verb_. (Decline it. )

_Increases_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expressesaction--intransitive, the action does not pass over to an object--of thethird person, singular number, because its nominative "flock" conveys_unity_ of idea, and it agrees with "flock" agreeably to

RULE 10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, must have averb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular_. 

"The divided _multitude_ hastily _disperse_. "

_Multitude_ is a noun, a name that denotes persons--a collective noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many--masculine and feminine gender, it implies both sexes--third person, spoken of--singular number, itrepresents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more_individuals_ than one;)--and in the nominative case, it is the actorand subject of the verb "disperse, " which it governs, according to RULE3. _The nom. Case governs the verb_. --Declined. --Sing. Nom. Multitude, poss. Multitude's, obj. Multitude--Plur. Nom. Multitudes, poss. Multitudes', obj. Multitudes. 

_Disperse_ is a verb, a word that signifies to do--active, it expressesaction--intransitive, the action does not terminate on an object--thirdperson, plural number, because its nominative "multitude" conveysplurality of idea; and it agrees with "multitude" agreeably to RULE 11. _A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb orpronoun agreeing with it in the plural. _

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to bebased on the principles of the language; and, therefore, it might, perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application isquite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns ofmultitude. The existence of such a thing as "unity or plurality ofidea, " as applicable to nouns of this class, is _doubtful_. It is justas correct to say, "The _meeting was_ divided in _its_ sentiments, " asto say, "The _meeting were_ divided in _their_ sentiments. " Both areequally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power ofcustom. It is correct to say, either that, "The _fleet were_ dispersed;""The _council were_ unanimous;" "The _council were_ divided;" or that, "The _fleet was_ dispersed;" "The _council was_ unanimous;" "The_council was_ divided. " But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in someinstances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, ofa plural construction, connected with words of this class. For example;custom gives a preference to the constructions, "My _people do_ notconsider;" "The _peasantry go_ barefoot;" "The _flock is_ his object;"instead of, "_My people doth_ not consider;" "The _peasantry goes_barefoot;" "The _flock are_ his object. " In instances like these, theapplication of the foregoing rules _may_ be of some use; but theconstructions in which they do not apply, are probably more numerousthan those in which they do. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Nom. Case. Intran. Verb. Nom. Case. Intran. Verb. Men labor. The sun sets. Armies march. The moon rises. Vessels sail. The stars twinkle. Birds fly. The rain descends. Clouds move. The river flows. Multitudes perish. The nation mourns. 

Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of words whichyou parse, but on the _attention_ which you give the subject. _You mayparse the same exercises several times over. _

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present another

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object; as, "Earthquakes_rock_ kingdoms; thrones and palaces _are shaken_ down; and potentates, princes, and subjects, _are buried_ in one common grave. "

The nominative to a passive verb, is the _object_, but not the _agent_, of the action. 

A verb is intransitive when it has no object; as, "The waters _came_upon me;" "I _am_ he who _was_, and _is_, and _is_ to _come_. "

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now put to you afew questions, all of which you ought to be able to answer before youproceed any farther. 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

With what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecturebegin?--Of what does Etymology treat?--Of what does Syntax treat?--Onwhat is based the true principle of classification?--How do youascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs?--What is meant byits _manner_ of meaning?--Name the ten parts of speech. --Which of theseare considered the most important?--By what sign may a noun bedistinguished?--How many kinds of nouns are there?--What belong tonouns?--What is gender?--How many genders have nouns?--What isperson?--How many persons have nouns?--What is number?--How many numbershave nouns?--What is case?--How many cases have nouns?--Does caseconsist in the _inflections_ of a noun?--How many kinds of verbs arethere?--By what sign may a verb be known?--What belong to verbs?--Whatis synthesis?--What is analysis?--What is parsing?--Repeat the order ofparsing the noun. --Repeat the order of parsing the verb. --What rule doyou apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case?--What rule, inparsing a noun in the nominative case?--What rule applies in parsing averb?--What is meant by government?--Explain rules 3, 4, and 12. --Bywhat rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known?--Bywhat sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitiveverb?--Do transitive verbs ever express a _moral_ action?--Areintransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive?--Give someexamples of transitive verbs with _personal_ and _verbal_ objects. --Whatrule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case?--Explain rule20. --In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying_plurality_ of idea, what rule do you apply?

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Whether the learner be required to answer the following questions, ornot, is, of course, left _discretionary_ with the teacher. The authortakes the liberty to suggest the expediency of _not_, generally, enforcing such a requisition, _until the pupil goes through the book asecond time. _

Name some participial nouns. --What are abstract nouns?--What is thedistinction between abstract nouns and adjectives?--What are naturalnouns?--Artificial nouns?--What is the distinction between _material_and _immaterial_ nouns?--Are nouns ever of the masculine and femininegender?--Give examples. --When are nouns, naturally neuter, convertedinto the masculine or feminine gender?--Give examples. --Speak some nounsthat are always in the singular number. --Some that are alwaysplural. --Speak some that are in the same form in both numbers. --Name_all_ the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns. --Of whatnumber are the nouns _news, means, alms_, and _amends_?--Name theplurals to the following compound nouns, _handful, cupful, spoonful, brother-in-law, court-martial_. 

 * * * * *

 NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

 Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and combinations, than the English language. The legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the essential use for which language was intended. Were this retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles, to obtain, among philologists, the ascendency over that which accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of philology as it applies to the present, progressive and refined state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, namely, the approximation of language, in common with every thing else, to that point of perfection at which it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be frustrated. 

 The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern English, by rejecting the authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back to the original combinations, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous constructions of our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a due regard for correct philology, impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by bringing to their aid a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic in the swelling phrases, "philosophy, reason, and common sense, " attempt to overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously occupied the field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and folly, will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference, custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement in English literature would soon be at an end, and we should be tamely conducted back to the Vandalic age. 

 As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of _grammatical certainty_, it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion. 

 All reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of language for an ultimate result, must be conducted _a posteriori_. Its office, according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, is to trace language to its origin, not for the purpose of determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances, such as the agreement, government, and mutual relations of words, but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the first principles of the language, and arrive at the primitive meaning of words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical dependances and connexions of words in general;--to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading object of the student in grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more splendid in theory, than useful in practice. 

 Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the power of association, custom has assigned to many words;--a signification _essentially different_ from the original import. Were this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to undergo a thorough change; to be analyzed, divided, and sub-divided, almost _ad infinitum_. Indeed, there is the same propriety in asserting that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our language, ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in determining, the import of words. Many of our words are derived from the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages; and the only use we can make of their originals, is to render them subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, and, with Horne Tooke, not only consider adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, as abbreviations of nouns and verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply them, in teaching the language, _in compliance with their radical import_, and what would such a course avail them against the power of custom, and the influence of association and refinement? Let them show me one grammarian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will exhibit a "philosophical" miracle. They might as well undertake to teach architecture, by having recourse to its origin, as represented by booths and tents. In addition to this, when we consider the great number of obsolete words, from which many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot be ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been changed by the principle of association, it is preposterous to think, that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching the language, is the one by which its significancy can be enforced, its correctness determined, its use comprehended, and its improvement extended. Before what commonly passes for a philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be made the medium through which it can be comprehended, in all its present combinations, relations, and dependances, it must undergo a thorough retrogressive change, in all those combinations, relations, and dependances, even to the last letter of the alphabet. And before we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of the English language, we must agree to revive the customs, the habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, the Goths and Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such philosophical grammars into common schools, at once to enter on their pilgrimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity of the ancient Britons, Picts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their loss, and that the good sense of the present age, would not allow many of our best teachers to be of the party. 

 The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of investigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice, _it cannot, in this age, be comprehended_ as the medium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our present literal language would become a dead letter. Of what avail is language, if it can not be understood? And how can it be accommodated to the understanding, unless it receive the sanction of common consent? Even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding the principles of our language, is more rational and correct than the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such a mode of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin, must unfold the whole in the same manner. But the student in common schools and academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of language up to its source, and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of him. His object is to become, not a philosophical antiquarian, but a practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any) of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general principles, arising out of the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the learner, by the exercise of his _reasoning powers_, must reduce to practice. His own judgment, _independent of grammar rules_, is to be his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclude from their systems, all exercises in what is called _false Syntax_. But these profound philological dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration, that the great mass of mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, _can never become philosophers;_ and, consequently, can never comprehend and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of grammar. I wish to see children treated as _reasoning_ beings. But there should be a medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and logicians. 

 To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising the learner in correcting _false Syntax_, I need no other argument than the interesting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors, in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the English language, in point of verbal accuracy. Who does not know, that the best writers of this day, are not guilty of _one_ grammatical inaccuracy, where those authors who wrote before Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty of _five_? And what has produced this important change for the better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who have studied "Mr. Murray's exercises in FALSE SYNTAX. " If, then, this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical grammars, are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of learners. 

 Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought proper, for the gratification of such, to intersperse through the pages of this work under the head of "PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES, " an entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. 

 _In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work. Wherever such agreement exists, the system contained in these NOTES will be deficient, and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting the principles contained in the other parts of the work_. 

 * * * * *

 OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

 According to the method in which philosophical investigations of language have generally been conducted, all our words should be reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown, that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduced to one. Verbs do not, in reality, _express_ actions; but they are intrinsically the mere _names_ of actions. The idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the _meaning_ of words in general, is merely _inferential_. The principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Horne Tooke, if carried to its full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving that we have but one part of speech. 

 _Adnouns_ or _adjectives_ were originally nouns. _Sweet, red, white_, are the _names_ of qualities, as well as _sweetness, redness, whiteness_. The former differ from the latter only in their _manner_ of signification. To denote that the name of some quality or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or, that this quality is to be _attributed_ to some other name, we sometimes affix to it the termination _en, ed_, or _y;_ which signifies _give, add, _ or _join_. When we employ the words wood_en_, wooll_en_, wealth_y_, grass_y_, the terminations _en_ and _y_, by their own intrinsic meaning, give notice that we intend to _give, add, or join_, the names of some other substances in which are found the properties or qualities of _wood, wool, wealth_, or _grass_. 

 _Pronouns_ are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their disagreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs. _An_ (_a, one_, or _one_) comes from _ananad_, to add, to heap. _The_ and _that_, from the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, assume. _Lo_ is the imperative of _look_; _fy_, of _fian_, to hate; and _welcome_ means, it is _well_ that you are _come. In_ comes from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; and _about_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the Teutonic noun _thuruh_, meaning passage, gate, door. _From_ is the Anglo-Saxon noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. He came _from (beginning)_ Batavia. _If_ (formerly written _gif, give, gin_) is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. I will remain _if_ (_give_ or _grant that fact_) he will (_remain_. ) _But_ comes from the Saxon verb _beon-utan_, to be-out. I informed no one _but (be-out, leave-out)_ my brother. 

 This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is the _true_ principle of classification; nor that it is any more _philosophical_ or _rational_ than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of words. What has been generally received as "philosophical grammar, " appears to possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical Grammar, " than Horne Tooke's "Diversions of Purley, " or William S. Cardell's treatises on language? What constitutes a _philosophical_ treatise, on this, or on any other subject? _Wherein_ is there a display of philosophy in a speculative, etymological performance, which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, _superior_ to the philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their legitimate purpose, namely, that of forming a correct and convenient medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts? Does philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in order to _guess_ at the ancient construction and signification of single words? or have such investigations, in reality, any thing to do with _grammar_?

 Admitting that all the words of our language include, in their _original_ signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it does not follow, that they _now_ possess no other powers, and, in their combinations and connexions in sentences, are employed for no other purpose, than _barely_ to _name objects_. The _fact_ of the case is, that words are variously combined and applied, to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of _naming_ objects, _asserting_ truths, _pointing out_ and _limiting_ objects, _attributing qualities_ to objects, _connecting_ objects, and so on; and on this _fact_ is founded the _true philosophical principle of the classification of words_. Hence, an arrangement of words into classes according to this principle, followed by a development and illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate as near to a true definition _of philosophical grammar_, as any I am capable of giving. 

 _Nouns_, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless constituted the original class of words; (if I may be allowed to assume such a hypothesis as an _original_ class of words;) but the ever-active principle of association, soon transformed nouns into verbs, by making them, when employed in a particular manner, expressive of affirmation. This same principle also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other names of objects; and in this way was constituted the class of words called _adjectives_ or _attributes_. By the same principle were formed all the other classes. 

 In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific principles, I shall divide words into seven classes; _Nouns_ or _Names, Verbs, Adjectives, Adnouns_, or _Attributes, Adverbs, Propositions, Pronouns_, and _Conjunctions_ or _Connectives_. 

 For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the work. 

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 Plausible arguments may be _advanced_, for rejecting _neuter_ and passive verbs; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the theory which recognises them, has stood the test of ages. If you tell the young learner, that, in the following expressions, The church _rests_ on its foundation; The book _lies_ on the desk; The boys _remain (are)_ idle, the nouns _church, book_, and _boys_, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the verbs _rests, lies, remain_, and _are_, are _active_, he will not believe you, because there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And should you proceed further, and, by a labored and metaphysical investigation and development of the laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that "every portion of matter is influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change, " and, therefore, every thing in universal nature is _always_ acting, it is not at all probable, that you could convince his _understanding_, in opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend?

 Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical grammar, the ingenious Horne Tooke stands pre-eminent; but, unfortunately, his principal speculations on the verb, have never met the public eye. William S. Cardell has also rendered himself conspicuous in the philological field, by taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is novel, and ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of his theory

 OF THE VERB. 

 A verb is a word which expresses _action;_ as, Man _exists_; Trees _grow_; Waters_flow_; Mountains _stand_; I _am_. 

 All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, expressed or implied. The pillar _stands_; that is, it _keeps itself_ in an erect or standing posture; it _upholds_ or _sustains itself_ in that position. They _are_; i. E. They _air_ themselves, or _breathe_ air; they _inspirit, vivify_, or _uphold_ themselves by inhaling air. 

 Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a persona or verbal one implied. The clouds _move_; i. E. Move _themselves_ along. The troops _marched_ twenty miles a day; i. E. Marched _themselves_. The moon _shines_:--The moon _shines_ or _sheds_ a _shining, sheen, lustre_, or _brightness_. The sparrow _flies:--flies_ or _takes_ a _flight_. Talkers talk or speak _words_ or _talk_; Walkers walk _walkings_ or _walks_; The rain rains _rain_; Sitters sit or hold _sittings_ or _sessions_. 

 To prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb, the following appear to be the strongest arguments adduced. 

 1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence; but the component parts of every thing are at all times "influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change. " Hence, it follows, that no being or thing can be represented in a _neuter_ or _non-acting state_. 

 This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the principles of physical science. The correctness of this position may be doubted; but if it can be clearly demonstrated, that every particle of matter is always in motion, it does not, by any means, follow, that we cannot _speak of_ things in a state of quiescence. What is _false_ in fact may be _correct_ in grammar. _The point contested, is not whether things always_ act, _but whether, when we assert or affirm something respecting them, we always_ represent _them as acting_. 

 2. Verbs were _originally_ used to express the motions or changes of things which produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterward applied, in the same way, to things whose actions were not apparent. This assumption is untenable, and altogether gratuitous. 

 3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood; and, as this mood commands some one to _do_ something, any verb which adopts it, must be active. Thus, in the common place phrases, "_Be_ there quickly; _Stand_ out of my way; _Sit_ or _lie_ farther. "

 It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an _active_ sense; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, _literal_ meaning. When I tell a man, _literally_, to _stand, sit_, or _lie_, by _moving_ he would disobey me; but when I say, "_Stand_ out of my way, " I employ the neuter verb _stand_, instead of the active verb _move_ or _go_, and in a correspondent sense. My meaning is, _Move_ yourself out of my way; or _take_ your _stand_ somewhere else. This, however, does not prove that _stand_ is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we can employ any _word_ in the language as an active-transitive verb. _Be, sit_, and _lie_, may be explained in the same manner. 

 4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the manner of _action_. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The child _sleeps soundly_; He _sits genteelly_; They _live contentedly_ and _happily_ together. 

 The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs are _not_ active. It is incorrect to say, I am _happily_; They were _peacefully_; She remains _quietly_; The fields appear _greenly_. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express _action_; for which reason we say, I am _happy_; They are _peaceful_; &c. But in the expressions, The child sleeps _soundly_; She sits _gracefully_; They live _happily_ and _contentedly_; we employ the verbs _sleeps, sits_, and _live_, in an active sense. When no action is intended, we say, They live _happy_ and _contented_. 

 If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally denominated neuter, _originally_ expressed action, their present, accepted meaning will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of _action_. 

 Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of the _modern_ theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it according to its value. 

 To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto baffled the skill, and transcended the learning, of our philosophical writers. If its essential quality, as is generally supposed, is made to consist in _expressing affirmation_, it remains still to be defined _when_ a verb _expresses_ affirmation. In English, and in other languages, words appropriated to express affirmation, are often used without any such force; our idea of affirmation, in such instances, being the mere _inference of custom_. 

 In the sentence, --"_Think, love_, and _hate_, denote moral actions, " the words _think, love_, and _hate_, are nouns, because they are mere _names_ of actions. So, when I say, "John, _write_--is an irregular verb, " the word _write_ is a noun; but when I say, "John, _write_--your copy, " _write_ is called a verb. 

 Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb in the other, when both constructions, until you pass beyond the word write, are exactly alike? If write does not _express_ action in the former sentence, neither does it in the latter, for, in both, it is introduced in the same manner. On scientific principles, _write_ must be considered a noun in the latter sentence, for it does not _express_ action, or make an affirmation; but it merely _names_ the action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the _inferential_ meaning. 

 The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is divested of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always presented in its _noun-state_. 

 If, after dinner, I say to a servant, "_Wine, "_ he infers, that I wish him to bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say, _Bring_ some _wine_, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish him to bring me wine; but all that is expressed, is the _name_ of the action, and of the object of the action. In fact, as much is done by _inference_, as by actual expression, in every branch of language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words. 

 It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, _est, eth, s, ed_, and, also, of the other parts of speech, were originally separate words of distinct meaning; and that, although they have been contracted, and, by the refinement of language, have been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they are employed, yet, in their present character of terminations, they retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a verbal name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing adjunct; thus, _the_ (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb; and when they used it as a verb, they added the termination _an_; thus, the_an_. The termination added, was a sign that _affirmation_ was intended. The same procedure has been adopted, and, in many instances, is still practised, in our language. _An_, originally affixed to our verbs, in the progress of refinement, was changed to en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plural number of our verbs was denoted by the termination, _en_; thus, they _weren_, they _loven_; but, as these terminations do not supersede the necessity of expressing the _subject_ of affirmation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as unnecessary excrescences. For the same reason, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular. 

 In support of the position, that these terminations were once separate words, we can trace many of them to their origin. To denote the feminine gender of some nouns, we affix _ess_; as, heir_ess_, instructr_ess. Ess_ is a contraction of the Hebrew noun _essa_, a female. Of our verbs, the termination _est_ is a contraction of _doest, eth_, of _doeth_, _s_ of _does_. We say, thou _dost_ or _doest_ love; or thou _lovest_; i. E. _love-dost_, or _love-doest_. Some believe these terminations to be contractions of _havest, haveth, has_. We affix _ed_, a contraction of _dede_, to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action named is _dede, did, doed_, or _done_. 

 _To_ and _do_ from the Gothic noun _taui_, signifying _act_ or _effect_, are, according to Horne Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and force; and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing adjunct, began to be dropped, its place and meaning were generally supplied by prefixing one of these. When I say, "I am going _to walk, "_ the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of _to_, meaning the same as _do_; and _walk_ is employed merely as a verbal name; that is, I assert that I shall _do_ the act which I name by the word _walk_, or the act of _walking_. 

 Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct, it is in the _noun-state_, and does not express affirmation, still this theory would be very inconvenient in practice. 

 I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI. 

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations oflanguage? (page 32. )--Do the syntactical dependances and connexions ofwords depend on their _original_ import?--Is the power of associationand custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of somewords?--Have words intrinsically a signification of their own; or istheir meaning _inferential_; i. E. Such as _custom_ has assigned to them?(page 38. )--On what _fact_ is based the true, philosophical principle ofclassification?--Define philosophical grammar. --Which is supposed to bethe original part of speech?--How were the others formed from that?--Howmany parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development andarrangement of the principles of our language?--Name them. --Whattestimony have we that many things do not act? (page 43. )--Repeat someof the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regardsall verbs as _active_. --In what moods are verbs used in their_noun-state?_ (page 48. )--Give examples. --What is said of theterminations _est, eth, s, _ and _en_, and of the words _to_ and _do?_

REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. 

You have already been informed, that verbs are the most important partof speech in our language; and to convince you of their importance, Inow tell you, that you cannot express a _thought_, or communicate an_idea_, without making use of a verb, either expressed or implied. Verbsexpress, not only _the state_ or _manner of being_, but, likewise, allthe different _actions_ and _movements_ of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate. As yet I have given you only a partialdescription of this sort of words; but when you are better prepared tocomprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and showyou the proper manner of using them. 

A word that is generally a _noun_, sometimes becomes a _verb_; and averb is frequently used as a _noun_. These changes depend on the sensewhich the word conveys; or, rather, on the office it performs in thesentence; that is the _manner_ in which it is applied to things. Forinstance, _glory_ is generally a noun; as "The _glory_ of God's throne. "But if I say, I _glory_ in religion; or, He _glories_ in wickedness, theword _glory_ becomes a verb. The _love_ of man is inconstant. In thissentence, _love_ is a _noun_; in the next, it is a _verb_: They _love_virtue. He _walks_ swiftly; Scavengers _sweep_ the streets; The ship_sails_ well. In these phrases, the words _walks, sweep_, and _sails_, are verbs; in the following they are nouns: Those are pleasant _walks_;He takes a broad _sweep_; The ship lowered her _sails_. 

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian withoutexercising your judgment. If you have sufficient resolution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office ofthe different parts of speech, their various properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply to them; and, in a few weeks, be ableto speak and write accurately. But you must not take things for granted, without examining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not amere _automaton_, or _boy-machine_; but a rational being. You ought, therefore, to _think_ methodically, to _reason_ soundly, and to_investigate_ every principle critically. Don't be afraid to _think foryourself_. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know notthe height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence. Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if you do notgain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, todrink of the fountain which gurgles from its base. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

NOTE 1, TO RULE 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always bedistinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision; as, The _nation's_glory. 

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. 

Not correct, because the nouns _girls_ and _boys_ are both in thepossessive case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which theyshould be distinguished; thus, "_girl's, boys'"_ according to thepreceding NOTE. [Repeat the note. ]

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

If the writer of this sentence meant _one_ ancestor, he should haveinserted the apostrophe after _r_, thus, "_ancestor's"_; if more thanone, after _s_, thus, _"ancestors'_ virtue;" but, by neglecting to placethe apostrophe, he has left his meaning ambiguous, and we cannotascertain it. This, and a thousand other mistakes you will often meetwith, demonstrate the truth of my declaration, namely, that "without theknowledge and application of grammar rules, you will often speak andwrite in such a manner as not to be _understood. "_ You may now turn backand re-examine the "illustration" of Rules 3, 4, and 12, on page 52, andthen correct the following examples about _five_ times over. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mansadvantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness. They suffer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. Jamesbought Johnsons Dictionary. 

RULE 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. 

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothingdelight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. Theyreads well. 

I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all havea harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt thehabit of correcting errors by applying rules; for, by-and-by, you willmeet with errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you areignorant of the application of grammar rules. 

Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies tothe _verb_ and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb isungrammatical. The noun _boys_, in the first sentence, is of the thirdperson _plural_, and the verb _improves_ is of the third person_singular_; therefore, Rule 4th is violated, because the verb dues notagree with its nominative in _number_. It should be, "boys _improve_. "The verb would then be _plural_, and agree with its nominative accordingto the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does not agree in _person_with its nominative. _Thou_ is of the _second_ person, and _shuns_ is ofthe _third_. It should be, "thou _shunnest_, " &c. You may correct theother sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in

FALSE SYNTAX. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of inhabitantsof the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing but vain and foolishpursuits delight some persons. 

 In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, When our abundance make us wish for more. 

 While ever and anon, there falls Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls. 

LECTURE III. 

OF ARTICLES. 

An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification; as, _a_ man, _the_ woman. 

There are only two articles, _a_ or _an_, and _the. A_ or _an_ is calledthe indefinite article. _The_ is called the definite article. 

The _indefinite article_ limits the noun to one of a kind, but to noparticular one; as, _a_ house. 

The _definite article_ generally limits the noun to a particular object, or collection of objects; as, _the_ house, _the_ men. 

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part ofspeech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification ofwords. _A_ and _the, this_ and _that, ten, few_, and _fourth_, and manyother words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the signification ofthe nouns to which they are joined. They might, therefore, withpropriety, be ranked under the general head of _Restrictives, Indexes_, or _Defining Adjectives_. But, as there is a marked distinction in theirparticular meaning and application, each class requires a separateexplanation. Hence, no practical advantage would be gained, by rejectingtheir established classification, as articles, numerals, anddemonstratives, and by giving them _new_ names. The character andapplication of _a_ and _the_ can be learned as soon when they are styled_articles_, as when they are denominated _specifying_ or _definingadjectives_. 

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are but twoarticles, _a_ or _an_ and _the_, you will know them wherever they occur. 

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is taken inits _general_ sense; as, _"Fruit_ is abundant;" "_Gold_ is heavy;""_Man_ is born to trouble" Here we mean, fruit and gold _in general;_and _all men_, or _mankind_. 

When we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to _one_ object, but to no_particular_ one, we employ _a_ or _an_. If I say, "Give me _a_ pen;""Bring me _an_ apple;" you are at liberty to fetch _any_ pen or _any_apple you please. _A_ or _an_, then, is _indefinite_, because it leavesthe meaning of the noun to which it is applied, as far as regards theperson spoken to, _vague_, or _indeterminate_; that is, _not definite_. But when reference is made to a _particular_ object, we employ _the_, as, "Give me _the_ pen;" "Bring me _the_ apple, or _the_ apple. " Whensuch a requisition is made, you are not at liberty to bring any pen orapple you please, but you must fetch the _particular_ pen or apple towhich you know me to refer. _The_ is, therefore, called the _definite_article. 

"_A_ star appears. " Here, the star referred to, may be known as a_particular_ star, _definite_, and distinguished from all others, in themind of the _speaker_; but to the _hearer_, it is left, among thethousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, _undistinguished_ and_indefinite_. But when the star has previously been made the subject ofdiscourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer a_definite_ object, and he says, "_The_ star appears;" that is, that_particular_ star about which we were discoursing. 

"Solomon built _a_ temple. " Did he build _any_ temple, _undeterminedwhich?_ No; it was a _particular_ temple, pre-eminently distinguishedfrom all others. But _how_ does it become a definite object in the mindof the _hearer_? Certainly, not by the phrase, "_a_ temple, " whichindicates _any_ temple, leaving it altogether _undetermined_ which; butsupposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the factasserted, and it becomes to him, _in one respect only_, a definite andparticular temple, by means of the associated words, "Solomon built;"that is, by the use of these words in connexion with the others, thehearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as _the one erected bySolomon_. If the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to beunacquainted with the fact related, he might make the temple referred toa still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a fartherexplanation of it; thus, "Solomon built _a_ temple _on mount Zion_; andthat was _the_ temple _to which the Jews resorted to worship_. "

 "_The_ lunatic, _the_ poet, and _the_ lover, Are of imagination all compact. "

"_The_ horse is a noble animal;" "_The_ dog is a faithful creature;""_The_ wind blows;" "_The_ wolves were howling in _the_ woods. " In theseexamples, we do not refer to any particular lunatics, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but we refer to these_particular classes_ of things, in contradistinction to other objects orclasses. The phrase, "Neither _the_ one nor _the_ other, " is an idiom ofthe language. 

 REMARKS. --This method of elucidating the articles, which is popular with Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and many other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected. 

 Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place with one that is more _convenient in practice_. Neither have they adopted one _less_ exceptionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else of human invention, will always be _imperfect_. Consequently, a _perfect_ system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A _perfect_ grammar will not be produced, until some _perfect_ being writes it for a _perfect_ language; and a perfect language will not be constructed, until some _super-human_ agency is employed in its production. All grammatical principles and systems which are not _perfect_, are _exceptionable_. 

 NOTES. 

 1. The article is _omitted_ before nouns implying the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, "_Modesty_ is becoming; _Falsehood_ is odious; _Grammar_ is useful, " &c. 

 2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns; as, _Barron_ killed _Decatur_; except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood; as, "He is not _a_ Franklin; He is _a_ Lee, or of the family of _the_ Lees; We sailed down _the_ (river) Missouri. "

 3. An _adjective_ is frequently placed between the article and the noun with which the article agrees; as, "A _good_ boy; an _industrious_ man. " Sometimes the adjective precedes the article; as, "As _great_ a man as Alexander; _Such_ a shame. "

 4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each separately under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective _many_ and a singular noun; as, "Where _many a rosebud_ rears its blushing head;" "Full _many a flower_ is born to blush unseen. "

 5. The definite article _the_ is frequently applied to _adverbs_ in the comparative or superlative degree; as, "_The more_ I examine it, _the better_ I like it, " "I like this _the least_ of any. "

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you shall havecommitted this

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING

_The order of parsing an_ Article, is--an article, and why?--definite orindefinite, and why?--with what noun does it agree?--RULE. 

 "He is _the_ son of _a_ king. "

_The_ is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit itssignification--definite, it limits the noun to a particular object--itbelongs to the noun "son, " according to

RULE 2. _The definite article_ the _belongs to nouns in the singular orplural number_. 

_A_ is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit itssignification--indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but tono particular one--it agrees with "king, " agreeably to

RULE 1. _The article_ a _or_ an _agrees with nouns in the singularnumber only_. 

 NOTE. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety of Rule 1, will appear. _A_ or _an_, (formerly written _ane, )_ being equivalent to _one, any one_, or _some one_, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an exception to this rule. _A_ is placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun: _few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, million_; as, _a_ few _men, a_ thousand _houses_, &c. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multitude pursuepleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The clerk sells the merchant's goods. Anostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileoinvented the telescope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. SirFrancis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Franklininvented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book. 

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enableyou to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, please toanswer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many articles are there?--In what sense is a noun taken, when it hasno article to limit it?--Repeat the _order_ of parsing an article. --Whatrule applies in parsing the _definite_ article?--What rule in parsingthe _indefinite_?

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 A, AN, THE. 

 In a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles, _a_ and _the_ belong to that class of adjectives denominated _definitives_ or _restrictives_. 

 _A, an, ane_, or _one_, is the past participle of _ananad_, to add, to join. It denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is _added, united, aned, an-d, oned, (woned, )_ or made _one_. 

 _The_ and _that_. According to Horne Tooke, _the_ is the imperative, and _that_, the past participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb _thean_, to get, take, assume. _The_ and _that_ had, originally, the same meaning. The difference in their present application, is a modern refinement. Hence, _that_, as well as _the_, was formerly used, indifferently, before either a singular or a plural noun. 

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Before what nouns is the article omitted?--Is the article _the_ everapplied to adverbs?--Give examples. --What is the meaning of _a_ or _an_?--When is _a_ or _an_ placed before a plural noun?--From what are _a, the_, and _that_ derived?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

NOTE TO RULE 1. _An_ is used before a vowel or silent _h_, and _a_before a consonant or _u_ long, and also before the word _one_. 

It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper to say, _a_ apple, _a_ humble suppliant, _an_ hero, _an_university, because the word _apple_ begins with a vowel, and _h_ is notsounded in the word _humble_, for which reasons _a_ should be _an_ inthe first two examples; but, as the _h_ is sounded in _hero_, and the_u_ is long in _university, a_ ought to be prefixed to these words:thus, _an_ apple, _an_ humble suppliant: _a_ hero, _a_ university. Youmay correct the following

EXAMPLES. 

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hardsaying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for anhorse. 

NOTE 1, TO RULE 2. The articles are often properly omitted: when usedthey should be justly applied, according to their distinct character;as, "Gold is corrupting; _The_ sea is green; _A_ lion is bold. " It wouldbe improper to say, _The_ gold is corrupting; Sea is green; Lion isbold. 

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good forthe horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted. 

In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particularkind of _grass_ or _wheat_, neither do we wish to limit the meaning toany particular crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we arespeaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article _the_should be omitted. In the second sentence, we do not refer to anydefinite kind, quality, or number of _horses_ or _men_; but to horsesand men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote _wholespecies_, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the sentenceshould read thus, "Grass is good for horses, and wheat for men. "

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to thecrops of _grass_ and _wheat_ now on the ground, which, incontradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are considered as_particular_ objects; therefore we should say, "_The_ grass lookswell; _The_ wheat is blighted. "

NOTE 2. When a noun is used in its _general_ sense, the article shouldbe omitted; as, "_Poetry_ is a pleasing art;" "_Oranges_ grow in NewOrleans. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Corn in the garden, grows well; but corn in the field, does not. Howdoes the tobacco sell? The tobacco is dear. How do you like the study ofthe grammar? The grammar is a pleasing study. A candid temper is properfor the man. World is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this wayunto the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are thefour elements of the old philosophers. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE IV. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 

An ADJECTIVE is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind, or to restrict its meaning; as, a _good_ man, a _bad_ man, _a free_ man, an _unfortunate_ man, _one_ man, _forty_ men. 

In the phrases, a _good_ apple, a _bad_ apple, a _large_ apple, a_small_ apple, a _red_ apple, a _white_ apple, a _green_ apple, a_sweet_ apple, a _sour_ apple, a _bitter_ apple, a _round_ apple, a_hard_ apple, a _soft_ apple, a _mellow_ apple, a _fair_ apple, a _May_apple, an _early_ apple, a _late_ apple, a _winter_ apple, a _crab_apple, a _thorn_ apple, a _well-tasted_ apple, an _ill-looking_ apple, a_water-cored_ apple, you perceive that all those words in _italics_ areadjectives, because each expresses some quality or property of the nounapple, or it shows what _kind_ of an apple it is of which we arespeaking. 

The distinction between a _noun_ and an _adjective_ is very clear. Anoun is the _name_ of a thing; but an adjective denotes simply the_quality_ or _property_ of a thing. This is _fine cloth_. In thisexample, the difference between the word denoting the _thing_, and thatdenoting the _quality_ of it, is easily perceived. You certainly cannotbe at a loss to know, that the word _cloth_ expresses the _name_, and_fine_, the _quality_, of the _thing_; consequently _fine_ must be an_adjective_. If I say, He is a _wise_ man, a _prudent_ man, a _wicked_man, or an _ungrateful_ man, the words in _italics_ are adjectives, because each expresses a _quality_ of the noun man. And, if I say, He isa _tall_ man, a _short_ man, a _white_ man, a _black_ man, or a_persecuted_ man, the words, _tall, short, white, black_, and_persecuted_, are also adjectives, because they tell what _kind_ of aman he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him someparticular property. 

Some adjectives _restrict_ or _limit_ the signification of the nouns towhich they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called_definitives_; as, _one_ era, _seven_ ages, the _first_ man, the _whole_mass, _no_ trouble, _those_ men, _that_ book, _all_ regions. 

Other adjectives _define_ or _describe_ nouns, or do both; as, _fine_silk, _blue_ paper, a _heavy_ shower, _pure_ water, _green_ mountains, _bland_ breezes, _gurgling_ rills, _glass_ window, _window_ glass, _beaver_ hats, _chip_ bonnets, _blackberry_ ridge, _Monroe_ garden, _Juniata_ iron, _Cincinnati_ steam-mill. 

Some adjectives are _secondary_, and qualify other adjectives; as, _pale_ red lining, _dark_ blue silk, _deep sea_ green sash, _soft_ ironblooms, _red hot_ iron plate. 

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun; as, "Those_men_ are _tall_; A _lion_ is _bold_; The _weather_ is _calm_; The_tree_ is three feet _thick_. "

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the otherparts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any wordthat will make sense with the word _thing_ added, or with any other nounfollowing it, is an adjective; as, a _high_ thing, a _low_ thing, a_hot_ thing, a _cold_ thing, an _unfinished_ thing, a _new-fashioned_thing:--or, a _pleasant_ prospect, a _long-deserted_ dwelling, an_American_ soldier, a _Greek_ Testament. Are these words adjectives, _distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double-headed?_ A distant_object_ or _thing_, yonder _hill_, &c. They are. They will make sensewith a noun after them. Adjectives sometimes become adverbs. This matterwill be explained in Lecture VI. In parsing, you may generally know anadjective by its _qualifying a noun or pronoun_. 

Most words ending in _ing_ are _present participles_. These arefrequently used as adjectives; therefore, most participles will makesense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, afterthem; as, a _pleasing_ thing, a _moving_ spectacle, _mouldering_ ruins. 

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, havegender, number, and case; but in the English language, they have neithergender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to _creatures_and _things_, and not to their _qualities_; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the properties of _nouns_, and _not_ ofadjectives. 

Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. Theyhave three degrees of comparison, the Positive, the Comparative, and theSuperlative. 

The _positive degree_ expresses the quality of an object without anyincrease or diminution; as, _good, wise, great_. 

The _comparative degree_ increases or lessens the positive insignification; as, _better, wiser, greater, less wise_. 

The _superlative degree_ increases or lessens the positive to thehighest or lowest degree; as, _best, wisest, greatest, least wise_. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

_More_ and _most_ form the comparative and superlative degrees byincreasing the positive; and _less_ and _least_, by diminishing it. 

Comparison by increasing the positive

_Pos. _ _Comp. _ _Sup. _great, greater, greatest. Wise, wiser, wisest. Holy, more holy most holy. Frugal, more frugal most frugal. 

Comparison by diminishing the positive. 

_Pos. _ _Comp. _ _Sup. _wise, less wise least wise. Holy, less holy, least holy. Frugal, less frugal, least frugal. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Words used in counting, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the_cardinal_ kind; as, _one, two, three, four, twenty, fifty, _ &c. 

Words used in numbering, are called _numeral adjectives_ of the_ordinal_ kind; as, _first, second, third, fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, _&c. 

 NOTE. The words _many, few_, and _several_, as they always refer to an indefinite number, may be properly called _numeral adjectives_ of the indefinite kind. 

 NOTES. 

 1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding _r_, or _er_; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding _st_, or _est_, to the end of it; as, Pos. Wise, Com. Wise_r_, Sup. Wise_st_; rich, rich_er_, rich_est_; bold, bold_er_, bold_est_. The adverbs, _more_ and _most, less_ and _least_, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect; as, Pos. Wise, Com. _more_ wise, Sup. _most_ wise; Pos. Wise, Com. _less_ wise, Sup. _least_ wise. 

 2. _Monosyllables_ are generally compared by adding _er_ and _est; dissyllables, trisyllables_, &c. By _more_ and _most_; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables ending in _y_; as, happy, lovely; and in _le_ after a mute; as, able, ample; and dissyllables accented on the last syllable; as, discreet, polite; easily admit of _er_ and _est_; as, happi_er_, happi_est_; polit_er_, _polit_est_. Words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations. 

 3. When the positive ends in _d_, or _t_, preceded by a _single_ vowel, the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees; as red, _redder, reddest_; hot, _hotter, hottest_. 

 4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding _most_ to the end of them; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

 5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy, ) that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison; as, "Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others. 

 6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the _superlative_ degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they carry in themselves a superlative signification: _chief, extreme, perfect, right, wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, endless, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal_. 

 7. Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison; such as, _well-formed, frost-bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, quadrangular, conical_, &c. 

 8. The termination _ish_ added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative; as, _black, blackish; salt, saltish. Very_, prefixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a superlative degree. 

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the NOTES; after which you mayparse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, theexamples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions andrules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing an_ ADJECTIVE, is--an adjective, and why?--compareit--degree of comparison, and why?--to what noun does it belong?--RULE. 

 That _great_ nation _was_ once _powerful_; but now it is _feeble_. 

_Great_ is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express itsquality--pos. Great, com. Greater, sup. Greatest--it is in the positivedegree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase ordiminution, and belongs to the noun "nation, " according to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed orunderstood_. 

_Was_ is a verb, a word that signifies to be--neuter, it expressesneither action nor passion, but being or a state of being--third personsingular, because its nominative "nation" is a noun of multitudeconveying _unity_ of idea--it agrees with "nation, " agreeably to RULE10. _A noun of multitude conveying_ unity _of idea, may have a verb orpronoun agreeing with it in the_ singular. 

_Powerful_ is an adjective belonging to "nation, " according to Rule 18. _Feeble_ belongs to "it, " according to Note 1, under Rule 18. _Is_ is aneuter verb agreeing with "it, " agreeably to Rule 4. 

 "Bonaparte entered Russia with 400, 000 men. "

_Four-hundred-thousand_ is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind, itis a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun "men, " according toNote 2, under Rule 18. _Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nounsmust agree in number with their adjectives_. 

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about whichyou are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse all theforegoing examples again. This course will enable you to proceed withoutany difficulty. 

_More_ is an adverb. _Of_ and _to_ are prepositions, governing the nounsthat follow them in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own largeships. The heavy ships bear large burdens; the lighter ships carry lessburdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical expressionsoffend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify trifling errors. Nocomposition is perfect. The rabble was tumultuous. The late-washed grasslooks green. Shady trees form a delightful arbor. The setting sun makesa beautiful appearance; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. Epaminondas was the greatest of the Theban generals; Pelopidas was nextto Epaminondas. 

The first fleet contained three hundred men; the second contained fourthousand. The earth contains one thousand million inhabitants. Many acheering ray brightens the good man's pathway. 

 NOTE. _Like, Worth_. The adjective _like_ is a contraction of the participle _likened_, and generally has the preposition _unto_ understood after it. "She is _like_ [_unto_] her brother. " "They are _unlike_ [_to_] him. " "The kingdom of heaven is _like_ [_likened_ or made _like_] _unto_ a householder. "

 The noun _worth_ has altogether dropped its associated words. "The cloth is _worth_ ten dollars _a_ yard;" that is, The cloth is _of the_ worth _of_ ten dollars _by the_ yard, or _for a, one_, or _every yard_. 

 Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellipsis after _like, worth, ere, but, except_, and _than_, but consider them prepositions. See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work. 

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. 

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without itsnoun, should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood;as, "The _virtuous_ [_persons_] and the _sincere_ [_persons_] are alwaysrespected;" "Providence rewards the _good_ [_people, _] and punishes the_bad_ [_people. _]"

 "The _evil_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] that men do, lives after them; "The _good_ [_deed_ or _deeds_] is oft-interred with their bones. "

But sometimes the adjective, by its _manner_ of meaning, becomes a noun, and has another adjective joined to it; as, "the chief _good_;" "Thevast _immense_ [_immensity_] of space. "

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character ofadjectives, according to their _manner_ of meaning; as, "_Sea_ fish, _iron_ mortar, _wine_ vessel, _gold_ watch, _corn_ field, _meadow_ground, _mountain_ height. "

The principle which recognises _custom_ as the standard of grammaticalaccuracy, might rest for its support on the usage of only _six_ words, and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If thegenius and analogy of our language were the standard, it would becorrect to observe this analogy, and say, "Good, good_er_, good_est_;bad, bad_der_, bad_dest_; little, littl_er_, littl_est_; much, much_er_; much_est_. " "By _this mean_;" "What _are_ the _news_. " But sucha criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establishit. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire, thegood sense of the people will cause them, in this instance, as well asin a thousand others, to yield to _custom_, and say, "Good, _better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_; little, _less, least_; much, _more, most_;""By _this means_;" "What _is_ the _news_?"

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, caremust be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity ornonsense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozenrules, put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put yourpen on paper to write, weigh well in your mind _the meaning of thewords_ which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely theideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoidinnumerable errors. In speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, heis _very_ wicked, or _exceedingly_ lavish, because the terms _wicked_ and_lavish_ are adjectives that admit of comparison; but, if we take thewords in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man_very_ honest, or _exceedingly_ just, for the words _honest_ and _just_, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is _honest_ or_dishonest, just_ or _unjust_: there can be no medium or excess in thisrespect. _Very_ correct, _very_ incorrect, _very_ right, _very_ wrong, are common expressions; but they are not _literally_ proper. What is not_correct_, must be _incorrect_; and that which is not _incorrect_, mustbe _correct_: what is not _right_, must be _wrong_; and that which isnot _wrong_, must be _right_. To avoid that circumlocution which mustotherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequentlycompare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison: "The_most established_ practice;" "The _most uncertain_ method;" "Irving, asa writer, _is far more accurate_ than Addison;" "The metaphysicalinvestigations of our philosophical grammars, are _still moreincomprehensible_ to the learner. " Comparisons like these, shouldgenerally be avoided; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled withthe principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative. 

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in _direct opposition_to each other; as, "Pope was _rich_, but Goldsmith was _poor_. " Thefollowing sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was _wiser_ than Cicero was_eloquent_. " "The principles of the reformation were _deeper_ in theprince's mind than to be _easily eradicated_. " This latter sentencecontains _no comparison_ at all; neither does it literally convey _anymeaning_. Again, if the Psalmist had said, "I am the wisest of myteachers, " he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase wouldimply, that he was one of his teachers. But in saying, "I am wiser_than_ my teachers, " he does not consider himself one of them, butplaces himself in contradistinction to them. 

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective?--By what signmay an adjective be known?--Are participles ever used asadjectives?--Does gender, person, number, or case, belong toadjectives?--How are they varied?--Name the three degrees ofcomparison. --What effect have _less_ and _least_ in comparingadjectives?--Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. --What ruleapplies in parsing an adjective?--What rule in parsing a verb agreeingwith a noun of multitude conveying _unity_ of idea?--What Note should beapplied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun?--What Notein parsing _numeral_ adjectives?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat all the various ways of forming thedegrees of comparison, mentioned in the first five NOTES. --Compare theseadjectives; _ripe, frugal, mischievous, happy, able, good, little, much_or _many, near, late, old_. --Name some adjectives that are always in thesuperlative, and never compared. --Are compound adjectivescompared?--What is said of the termination _ish_, and of the adverb_very?_--When does an adjective become a noun?--What character does anoun assume when placed before another noun?--How can you prove that_custom_ is the standard of grammatical accuracy?

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 ADNOUNS. 

 _Adnoun_ or _Adjective_, comes from the Latin, _ad_ and _jicio_, to _add to_. 

 Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, or to determine their extension. Those which effect the former object, are called _adjectives_, or _attributes;_ and those which effect the latter, _restrictives_. It is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should be referred. Words which express simply the _qualities_ of nouns, are adjectives; and such as denote their _situation_ or _number_, are restrictives. 

 Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs. 

 Some consider the adjective, in its present application, _exactly_ equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a preposition, or of a corresponding flexion. "A _golden_ cup, " say they, "is the same as a _gold_ cup, or a cup _of gold_. " But this principle appears to be exceptionable. "A cup _of gold_, " may mean either a cup-_full_ of gold, or a cup _made_ of gold. "An _oaken_ cask, " signifies an _oak_ cask, or a cask _of oak_; i. E. A cask _made_ of oak; but a _beer_ cask, and a cask _of beer_, are two different things. A _virtuous_ son; a son _of virtue_. 

 The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its both _naming_ a quality, and _attributing_ that quality to some object. 

 The terminations _en, ed_, and _ig_ (our modern _y_, ) signifying _give, add, join_, denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such qualities: wood-_en_, wood-_y_. See page 37. 

 _Left_ is the past participle of the verb _leave_. Horne Tooke defines _right_ to be that which is _ordered_ or _directed_. The _right_ hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when you employ that in preference, the other is the _leaved, leav'd_, or _left_ hand; i. E. The one _leaved_ or _left_. "The one shall be taken, and the other _(leaved) left_. "

 _Own_. Formerly a man's _own_ was what he _worked for, own_ being a past participle of a verb signifying to _work_. 

 _Restrictive_. Some restrictives, in modern times, are applied only to singular nouns; such as _a_ or _an, another, one, this, that, each, every, either_. Others, only to plural nouns; as, _these, those, two, three, few, several, all_. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural nouns: _first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what_. 

 _Numerals_. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the fingers; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification. _Ten_ is the past participle of _tynan_, to close, to shut in. The hands _tyned, tened_, closed, or shut in, signified _ten_; for there numeration _closed_. To denote a number greater than ten, we must begin again, _ten_ and _one, ten_ and _two_, &c. 

 _Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane_, is a compound of _two (twa, twae, twee, twi, two_ or _dwo_ or _duo)_ and _one (ane, ain, an. )_ It signifies _two_ units _joined, united, aned, _ or _oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten)_ signifies _two tens aned, oned_, or _united_. Things _separated_ into parcels of twenty each, are called _scores. Score_ is the past participle of _shear_, to _separate_. 

 _The Ordinals_ are formed like abstract nouns in _eth. Fifth, sixth_, or _tenth_ is the number which _fiv-eth, six-eth, ten-eth_, or mak-_eth_ up the number _five, six_, or _ten_. 

 Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they were _originally_ employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words, are to be reduced to _the standard of our forefathers_; appear not to have sufficiently attended to the _changes_ which this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted from generation to generation, many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated; and thus they undergo a change, not only in the _mode_ of their application, but also in their meaning. Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as much, _at least_, as things themselves change; but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only of secondary importance; and sometimes, by degrees, it loses altogether its connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some accidental causes, it has been associated. 

 Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an ancient English version of the New Testament, we find the following language: "I, Paul, a _rascal_ of Jesus Christ, unto you Gentiles, " &c. But who, in the present acceptation of the word, would dare to call "the great apostle of the Gentiles" a _rascal? Rascal_ formerly meant a _servant:_ one devoted to the interest of another; but now it is nearly synonymous with _villain. Villain_ once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held lands of another. Thus, Henry the VIII. Says to a vassal or tenant, "As you are an accomplished _villain_, I order that you receive £700 out of the public treasury. " The word _villain_, then, has given up its original idea, and become the representative of a new one, the word _tenant_ having supplanted it. To prove that the meaning of words _changes_, a thousand examples could be adduced; but with the intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary. 

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How are adnouns divided?--What constitutes the true character of anadjective?--What are the signification and denotement of theterminations, _en, ed_, and _ig?_--What do _left_ and _own_signify?--Name the three ways in which restrictives are applied. --Howwas numeration originally performed?--What is said of _twain, twenty, score_, and the ordinal numbers?--What is said of the changes producedin the meaning of words, by the principle of association?

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. NOTE 9, under RULE 18. Double _Comparatives_and _Superlatives_ should be avoided; such as, _worser, lesser, more_deeper, _more_ wickeder, &c. : _chiefest, supremest, perfectest, rightest_; or _more_ perfect, _most_ perfect, _most_ supreme, &c. 

 Virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man, and it should be his chiefest desire. 

 He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night. 

The phrases "most supreme, " and "chiefest, " in the first sentence, areincorrect, because _supreme_ and _chief_ are in the superlative degreewithout having the superlative form superadded, which addition makesthem double superlatives. They should be written, "confers supremedignity, " and, "his chief desire. "

We can say, one thing is _less_ than another, or _smaller_ than another, because the adjectives _less_ and _smaller_ are in the comparativedegree; but the phrase "_lesser_ light, " in the second sentence, isinaccurate. _Lesser_ is a double comparative, which, according to thepreceding Note, should be avoided. _Lesser_ is as incorrect as _badder, gooder, worser_. "The _smaller_ light, " would be less exceptionable. Youcan correct the following without my assistance. Correct them _four_times over. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those ofimagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs thefaster the lesser weight it carries. The nightingale's voice is the mostsweetest in the grove. The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, He was admitted to the chiefest offices. The first witness gave a strongproof of the fact; the next more stronger still; but the last witness, the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere proofof the truer friendship. 

LECTURE V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A PARTICIPLE is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the natureof a verb, and also of an adjective. 

Verbs have three participles, the present or imperfect, the perfect, andthe compound. 

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle denotes action or beingcontinued, but not perfected. It always ends in _ing_; as, _ruling, being_: "I am _writing_ a letter. "

The _perfect_ participle denotes action or being perfected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends in _ed_, and corresponds withthe imperfect tense; as, _ruled, smiled:_ "The letter is _written_. "

The _compound_ participle implies action or being completed before thetime referred to. It is formed by placing _having_ before the perfectparticiple; as, _having ruled, having been ruled: "Having written_ theletter, he mailed it. "

The term _Participle_ comes from the Latin word _participio_, whichsignifies to _partake_: and this name is given to this part of speech, because it _partakes_ of the nature of the verb and of the adjective. 

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and treated asa part of it; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of anadjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itself, it isbelieved that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, toentitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech. It is, in fact, theconnecting link between, not only the adjective and the verb, but alsothe noun and the verb. 

All participles are compound in their meaning and office. Like verbs, they express action and being, and denote time; and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In thesentences, The boatman is _crossing_ the river; I see a man _laboring_in the field; Charles is _standing_; you perceive that the participles_crossing_ and _laboring_ express the actions of the boatman and theman, and _standing_ the state of being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they_describe_ the several nouns associated with them, like describingadjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the propertiesof adjectives. And, furthermore, you observe they denote actions whichare still going on; that is, _incomplete_ or _unfinished_ actions; forwhich reason we call them _imperfect_ participles. 

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When theimperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated_participial adjectives_; as, A _loving_ companion; The _rippling_stream; _Roaring_ winds; A _wilted_ leaf; An _accomplished_ scholar. Here the words _loving, rippling, roaring, wilted_, and _accomplished_, describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And wherethe participles are placed after their nouns, they have, also, thisdescriptive quality. If I say, I see the moon _rising_; The horse is_running_ a race; The dog is _beaten_; I describe the several objects, as a _rising_ moon, a _running_ horse, and a _beaten_ dog, as well aswhen I place these participles before the nouns. The same word is aparticiple or a participial adjective, according to its manner ofmeaning. The preceding illustration, however, shows that thisdistinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in themeaning of the two. The following examples will enable you todistinguish the one from the other. 

_Participles. Participial adjectives_. 

See the sun _setting_. See the _setting_ sun. See the moon _rising_. See the _rising_ moon. The wind is _roaring_. Hear the _roaring_ wind. The twig is _broken_. The _broken_ twig fell. The vessel _anchored_ in the The _anchored_ vessel spreads bay, lost her mast. Her sail. 

The _present_ or _imperfect_ participle is known by its ending in _ing_;as, float_ing_, rid_ing_, hear_ing_, see_ing_. These are derived fromthe verbs, _float, ride, hear_, and _see_. But some words ending in_ing_ are not participles; such as _evening, morning, hireling, sapling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolling_. When you parse a word endingin _ing_, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb ornot. There is such a verb as _interest_, hence you know that the word_interesting_ is a participle; but there is no such verb as_un_interest, consequently, _un_interesting can _not_ be a participle:but it is an adjective; as, an _uninteresting_ story. You will be ablevery easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts ofspeech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of theverb. 

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, overrate, disengage. Thus, Pres. _learning_, Perf. _learned_, Comp. _havinglearned_. Pres. _walking_, Perf. _walked_, Compound, _having walked_, and so on. 

You may now commit the _order_ of parsing a participle, and then proceedwith me. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The _order of parsing_ a PARTICIPLE, is--a participle, and why?--fromwhat verb is it derived?--speak the three--present, perfect, orcompound, and why?--to what does it refer or belong?--RULE. 

 "I saw a vessel _sailing"_

_Sailing_ is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and partakes ofthe nature of a verb, and also of an adjective--it comes from the verbto sail--pres. Sailing, perf. Sailed, comp. Having sailed--it is apresent or imperfect participle, because it denotes the continuance ofan unfinished action--and refers to the noun "vessel" for its subject, according to

RULE 27. _The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denotingthe subject or actor_. 

 "Not a breath disturbs the _sleeping_ billow. "

_Sleeping_ is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to expressits quality--it cannot, with propriety, be compared--- it belongs to thenoun "billow, " agreeably to

RULE 18. _Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expressed orunderstood_. 

You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by alittle reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th RULE. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to _agree_ with anoun or pronoun, for, as it has no _nominative_, it has no agreement;but it simply _refers to_ an actor. Examples: I see a _vessel_ sailing;or, I see three _vessels_ sailing. You perceive that the participle_sailing_ refers to a singular noun in the first example, and to aplural noun in the second; and yet the participle is in the same form inboth examples. The noun _vessel_ is in the objective case, and governedby the transitive verb _see_. But when a verb follows a noun, the endingof the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which isits nominative; as, the vessel _sails;_ the vessels _sail_. 

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relatesto the participle. In the sentence, "The man is _beating_ his horse, "the noun _horse_ is in the objective case, because it is the object ofthe action expressed by the active-transitive participle "beating, " andit is governed by the participle beating, according to

RULE 26. _Participles have the same government as the verbs have fromwhich they are derived_. 

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite apparent. As aparticiple derived from a transitive verb, expresses the same kind ofaction as its verb, it necessarily follows, that the participle mustgovern the same case as the verb from which it is derived. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may proceedand parse the following exercises, containing five parts of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words which you cannot parsecorrectly and _systematically_ by referring to your Compend fordefinitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over againthe whole _five_ lectures. You must exercise a little patience; and, foryour encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall haveacquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only _five_more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough inyour investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. By studyingthese lectures with attention, you will acquire more grammaticalknowledge in _three_ months, than is commonly obtained in _two_ years. 

In the following examples, the words _purling, crusted, slumbering_, and_twinkling_, are participial adjectives. _There_ and _its_ you may omit. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float longrafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave oldhermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholdsthe twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw thedesert thistle bending there its lowly head. 

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES. 

Participles frequently become nouns; as, "A good _understanding_;Excellent _writing_; He made a good _beginning_, but a bad _ending_. "

Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by the bestauthorities: "The goods are _selling_;" "The house is _building_;" "Thework is now _publishing_. " A modern innovation, however, is likely tosupersede this mode of expression: thus, "The goods are _being sold_;""The house is _being built_;" "The work is now _being published_. "

You may now answer theseQUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

How many kinds of participles are there?--What is the ending of apresent participle?--What does a perfect participle denote?--With whatdoes the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond?--What is acompound participle?--From what word is the term participlederived?--Why is this part of speech thus named?--Wherein does this partof speech partake of the nature of a verb?--Do all participlesparticipate the properties of adjectives?--In what respect?--When areparticiples called _participial adjectives_?--Give examples. --How may apresent participle be known?--Repeat the order of parsing aparticiple. --What rule applies in parsing a _present_ participle?--WhatRule in parsing a participial adjective?--Do participles vary in theirterminations in order to agree with their subject or actor?--What Ruleapplies in parsing a noun in the _objective case_, governed by aparticiple?--Do participles ever become nouns?--Give examples. 

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination _ing, ed_, or _en_. _Ing_ signifies the same as the noun _being_. When postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is _being_ continued. _En_ is an alteration of _an_, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct; _ed_ is a contraction of _dede_; and the terminations _d_ and _t_, are a contraction of _ed_. Participles ending in _ed_ or _en_, usually denote the _dodo, dede, doed, did, done_, or _finished_ state of what is meant by the verb. The book is _printed_. It is a _print-ed_ or _print-done_ book, or such a one as the _done_ act of _printing_ has made it. The book is _written_; i. E. It has received the _done_ or _finish-ed_ act of _writ-ing_ it. 

 Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nouns. They might, therefore, be styled _verbal adjectives_. But that theory which ranks them with adnouns, appears to rest on a sandy foundation. In classifying words, we ought to be guided more by their _manner_ of meaning, and their _inferential_ meaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. "I have a _broken_ plate;" i. E. I have a plate--_broken_; "I have _broken_ a plate. " If there is no difference in the _essential_ meaning of the word _broken_, in these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide difference in the meaning--_inferred_ by custom; which difference depends on the _manner_ in which the term is applied. The former construction denotes, that I _possess_ a plate which was _broken_, (whether with or without my agency, is not intimated, ) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago; whereas, the meaning of the latter is, that I _performed the act_ of reducing the plate from a whole to a _broken_ state; and it is not intimated whether I possess it, or some one else. It appears reasonable, that, in a practical grammar, at least, any word which occurs in constructions differing so widely, may properly be classed with different parts of speech. This illustration likewise establishes the propriety of retaining what we call the _perfect tense_ of the verb. 

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How are participles formed?--What does the imperfect part express?--What do perfect participles denote?

 * * * * *

LECTURE VI. 

OF ADVERBS. 

An ADVERB is a word used to modify the sense of a _verb_, a_participle_, an _adjective_, or another _adverb_. 

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a _noun_. It qualifies any of thefour parts of speech abovenamed, and none others. 

To _modify_ or _qualify_, you know, means to produce some _change_. Theadverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style _excels_ Irving's, theproposition is affirmative, and the verb _excels_ expresses theaffirmation. But when I say, Wirt's style _excels not_ Irving's, theassertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies orchanges the meaning of the verb _excels_? You perceive that it is thelittle word _not_. This word has power to reverse the meaning of thesentence. _Not_, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb. 

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle, itgenerally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action isperformed, or some accidental circumstance respecting it. In thephrases, The man rides _gracefully, awkwardly_, _badly, swiftly, slowly_, &c. ; or, I saw the man riding _swiftly, slowly, leisurely, veryfast_, &c. , you perceive that the words _gracefully, awkwardly, veryfast_, &c. , are adverbs, qualifying the verb _rides_, or the participle_riding_, because they express the _manner_ in which the action denotedby the verb and participle, is done. 

In the phrases, The man rides _daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, often, sometimes, never_; or, The man rode _yesterday, heretofore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now_ or, The man will ride _soon, presently, directly, immediately, by and by, to-day, hereafter_, youperceive that all these words in _italics_, are adverbs, qualifying themeaning of the verb, rides, because they express the _time_ of theaction denoted by the verb. 

Again, if I say, The man lives _here, near by, yonder, remote, far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere_, &c. , the words in _italics_ are adverbsof _place_, because they tell where he lives. 

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other adverbs; as, _more_ wise, _most_ wise; or _more wisely, most wisely_. When an adverbis joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally expresses _the degree_of comparison; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective _skilful_is in the positive degree; but, by placing the adverb _more_ before theadjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective tothe comparative; as, A _more_ skilful artist: and _most_ renders itsuperlative; as, A _most_ skilful artist. And if we place more and mostbefore other adverbs, the effect is the same; as, skilfully, _more_skilfully, _most_ skilfully. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

_Positive_ _Comparative_ _Superlative_. Soon sooner soonest. Often oftener oftenest. Much more most. Well better best. Far farther farthest. Wisely more wisely most wisely. Justly more justly most justly. Justly less justly least justly. 

You will generally know an adverb at sight; but sometimes you will findit more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech inthe English language. I will, therefore, give you some _signs_ whichwill assist you a little. 

Most words ending in _ly_ are adverbs; such as, _politely, gracefully, judiciously_. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one ofthe questions, _how? how much? when?_ or _where?_ is an adverb; as, Theriver flows _rapidly_; He walks _very fast_; He has gone _far away;_ buthe will _soon_ return; She sings _sweetly_; They learn _none at all_. How, or in what manner does the river flow? _Rapidly_. How does he walk?_Very fast_. Where has he gone? _Far away_. When will he return? _Soon_. How does she sing? _Sweetly_. How much do they learn? _None at all_. From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell theseadverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to thequestions. However, your better way will be to distinguish adverbs byconsidering the office they perform in the sentence; or by noticingtheir grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to otherwords. To gain a thorough knowledge of their real character, is highlyimportant. _Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly_, &c. Are known to beadverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A _very_ good penwrites _extremely well. " Well_, in this sentence, is known to be anadverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb _writes; extremely_, byits ending in _ly_, or by its being joined to the adverb _well_ toqualify it; and _very_ is known as an adverb by its joining theadjective _good_. 

Expressions like these, _none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, longsince, at length, in vain_, when they are used to denote the _manner_ or_time_ of the action of verbs or participles, are generally termed_adverbial phrases_. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may, for the sake of practicalconvenience, be reduced to particular classes. 

1. _Of Number;_ as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. _Of Order;_ as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &c. 

3. _Of Place;_ as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, upward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, whithersoever, &c. 

4. _Of Time_. _Present_; as, Now, to-day, &c. _Past_; as, Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. _Future_; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, ere long, straightways, &c. _Time indefinite_; as, Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 

5. _Of Quantity_; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly, &c. 

6. _Of Manner_ or _quality_; as, Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind; andthey are generally formed by adding the termination _ly_ to an adjectiveor a participle, or by changing _le_ into _ly;_ as, Bad, badly;cheerful, cheerfully; able, ably; admirable, admirably. 

7. _Of Doubt_; as, Haply, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 

8. _Of Affirmation_; as, Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 

9. _Of Negation_; as, Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, &c. 

10. _Of Interrogation_; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &c. , andsometimes when, whence, where. 

11. _Of Comparison_; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &c. 

 NOTES. 

 1. This catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our language. Many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with the adverbs of place, _here, there, where_; as, Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, therein, wherein; therefore, (i. E. There-for, ) wherefore, (i. E. Where-for, ) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon, &c. 

 2. Some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter _a_, used instead of _at, an_, &c. ; as, Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, adrift, aghast, ago, askance, away, asunder, astray, &c. 

You will now please to read this lecture _four_ times over, and readslowly and carefully, for unless you understand well the nature andcharacter of this part of speech, you will be frequently at a loss todistinguish it from others in composition. Now do you notice, that, inthis sentence which you have just read, the words _slowly, carefully, well_, and _frequently_, are adverbs? And do you again observe, that, inthe question I have just put to you, the words _now_ and _just_ areadverbs? Exercise a little sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent inreflection, are worth whole days occupied in careless reading. 

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Adverbs; and Ibelieve you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to thesystematic order, _four_ times over. Those words in _italics_ areadverbs. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing an_ ADVERB, is--an adverb, and why?--whatsort?--what does it qualify?--RULE. 

"My friend has returned _again_; but his health is _not very_ good. "_Again_, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a verb--oftime indefinite, it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--itqualifies the verb "has returned, " according to

Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and otheradverbs_. 

_Not_ is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--ofnegation, it makes the assertion negative; that is, it changes theproposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies theadverb "very, " agreeably to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify verbs, &c_. 

_Very_ is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of anadjective--of comparison, it compares the adjective "good, " andqualifies it according to Rule 29. _Adverbs qualify adjectives, &c_. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying _gradually. Very_ fewliterary men _ever_ became distinguished poets. The great Milton excels_not_ Homer. The Roman women, _once voluntarily_ contributed their_most_ precious jewels to save the city. 

Many small streams uniting, form _very_ large rivers. The river Funzafalling _perpendicularly_ forms a vast cataract. Attentive servants_always_ drive horses _very carefully_; negligent servants _often_ drivehorses _very carelessly_. Assiduous scholars improve _very fast_; idlescholars learn _none at all_. Friendship _often_ ends in love; but lovein friendship, _never_. 

NOTE. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked? _Notyet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far_, and _enough_, qualify"have walked" understood; _perhaps_ qualifies _not_; and _quite_qualifies _far_. The adverbs _always_ and _carefully_ both qualify theverb "drive:" the former expresses _time_, and the latter, _manner. Once_ and _voluntarily_ qualify the verb "contributed;" the formerexpresses _number_, and the latter, _manner_. The word _their_ you neednot parse. The active verb _to save_ has no nominative. The nouns _love_and _friendship_, following _in_, are in the objective case, andgoverned by that preposition. 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 

When the words _therefore, consequently, accordingly_, and the like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are _adverbs_; butwhen they appear single, they are commonly considered _conjunctions_. 

The words _when_ and _where_, and all others of the same nature, such as_whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherwise, while, wherefore_, &c. May be properly called _adverbial conjunctions_, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions; ofadverbs, as they denote the attributes either of _time_ or _place_; ofconjunctions, as they _conjoin sentences_. 

There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and, sometimes as adverbs; as, "_More_ men than women were there; I am _more_diligent than he. " In the former sentence _more_ is evidently anadjective, for it is joined to a noun to qualify it; in the latter it isan adverb, because it qualifies an adjective. There are others that aresometimes used as nouns, and sometimes as adverbs; as, "_to-day's_lesson is longer than _yesterday's_. " In this example, _to-day_ and_yesterday_ are nouns in the possessive case; but in phrases like thefollowing, they are generally considered adverbs of time; "He came [_tohis] home yesterday_, and will set out again _to-day_. " Here they arenouns, if we supply _on_ before them. 

"Where _much [wealth, talent_, or something else] is given, _much[increase, improvement_] will be required; _Much_ money has beenexpended; It is _much_ better to write than starve. " In the first two ofthese examples, _much_ is an adjective, because it qualifies a noun; inthe last, an adverb, because it qualifies the adjective _better_. Inshort, you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs, by its_sense_, or by considering the _manner_ in which it is associated withother words. 

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an _adverb_ by thisrule: when a word qualifies a _noun_ or _pronoun_, it is an adjective, but when it qualifies a _verb, participle, adjective_, or _adverb_, itis an adverb. 

Prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs, when their nounsare understood. "He rides _about_;" that is, about the _town, country_, or some-_thing_ else. "She was _near_ [the _act_ or _misfortune of_]falling;" "But do not _after_ [that _time_ or _event_] lay the blame onme. " "He came _down_ [the _ascent_] from the hill;" "They lifted him_up_ [the _ascent_] out of the pit. " "The angels _above_;"--above_us_--"Above these lower _heavens_, to us invisible, or dimly seen. "

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, you may answer these

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun?--What parts of speech does itqualify?--When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what does itexpress?--When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does itgenerally express?--Compare some adverbs. --By what signs may an adverbbe known?--Give examples. --Repeat some _adverbial phrases_. --Name thedifferent classes of adverbs. --Repeat some of each class. --Repeat theorder of parsing an adverb. --What rule do you apply in parsing anadverb?

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions withadverbs of place. --Repeat some that are composed of the article _a_ andnouns. --What part of speech are the words, _therefore, consequently_, &c. ?--What words are styled _adverbial conjunctions_?--Why are they socalled?--Is the same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimesas an adverb?--Give examples. --What is said of _much_?--By what rule canyou distinguish an adjective from an adverb?--Do prepositions everbecome adverbs?

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identified with these, it may naturally be supposed, that that nation which continues, through successive generations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful of the cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark is illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English language as their medium for the transmission of thought. Among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, conjunctions, and prepositions; for I presume it will be readily conceded, that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is the offspring of refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath is saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demonstrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that is daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit. 

 Most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; as, "He did it _here_, " for, He did it _in this place; there_, for, _in that place; where_, for, _in what place; now_, for, _at this time. Why_ means _for what reason; how--in what mind, mood, mode_, or _manner; exceedingly--to a great degree; very--in an eminent degree; often_ and _seldom_ signify _many times, few times_. 

 The procedures by which words have been contracted, modified and combined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolific family of this illegitimate race, are those in _ly_, a contraction of _like. Gentleman-ly_, means _gentleman-like, like_ a gentleman. We do not yet say, _ladily_, but _lady-like_. The north Britons still say, _wiselike, manlike_, instead of, _wisely, manly_. 

 _Quick_ comes from _gwick_, the past part. Of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gwiccian_, to vivify, give life. _Quick-ly_ or _live-ly_, means, in a _quick-like_ or _life-like_ manner; in the manner of a creature that has _life. Rapid-ly--rapid-like, like a rapid_; a _quick-ly_ or _swift-ly_ running place in a stream. 

 _Al-ways_, contraction of _in all ways_. By a slight transition, it means _in_ or _at all times. Al-one_, contraction of _all-one. On-ly--one-like. Al-so--all the same_ (thing. ) _Ever_--an _age_. For _ever_ and _ever_--for _ages_ and _ages_. Ever is not synonymous with always. _Never_--_ne ever_. It signifies _no age, no period of time. No_, contraction of _not. Not_, a modification of _no-thing, noth-ing, naught_. "He is _not_ greater"--is greater _in naught_--_in no thing_. 

 _Adrift_ is the past part. _adrifed, adrif'd, adrift_; from the Saxon _drifan_, or _adrifan_, to drive. _Ago_, formerly written _ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone_, is the past part. Of the verb _to go_. It refers to time _gone by. Asunder_, the Saxon past part. _asundren_, from the verb _sondrian_ or _asondrian_, to separate. _Aloft--on the loft, on luft, on lyft; lyft_ being the Anglo-Saxon word for _air_ or _clouds. Astray_, the part. Of _straegan_, to stray. _Awry_, part. Of _wry than_, to writhe. 

 _Needs_--_need-is_; anciently, _nedes_, nede is. To-_wit_, the infinitive of _witan_, to know. It means, _to be known_. _Ay_ or _yea_ signifies _have it, enjoy it. Yes_ is _ay-es_, have, possess, enjoy _that_. Our corrupt _o-yes_ of the crier, is the French imperative, _oyez_, hear, listen. _Straight way_--by a straight way. _While--wheel_; period in which some thing _whiles_ or _wheels_ itself round. _Till_--to while. _Per_, Latin, --the English _by_. Perhaps--per haps, per chance. These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent pupil to the "Diversions of Purley, by John Horne Tooke. "

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness oflanguage?--Illustrate the fact. --What is said of _ly, like_, and_quick_?--How are the following words composed, _always, alone, only, also_?--What is the meaning of _ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, awry_?--Give the signification of _needs, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straightway, while, till_, and _per_. 

NOTE. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes, in this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

NOTE 3, TO RULE 29, Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied asadverbs; as, indifferent honest; excellent well; miserable poor:--Shewrites elegant; He is walking slow. 

The adjectives _indifferent, excellent_, and _miserable_, are hereimproperly used, because adjectives do not express the degree ofadjectives or adverbs, but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, therefore, be, "_indifferently_ honest, _excellently_ well, _miserably_ poor. " _Elegant_ and _slow_ are alsoinaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express themanner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is_the office_ of the adverb. The constructions should be, "She writes_elegantly_; He is walking _slowly_. "

You may correct the following examples several times over, and explainthe principles that are violated. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. 

She reads proper, and writes very neat. 

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable poor. 

The lowering clouds are moving slow. 

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to giveoffence. 

NOTE 4, TO RULE 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead ofadjectives; as, "The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but_suitably_ to his offence. "

The adverb _suitably_ is incorrect. It does not express the manner ofthe action of the verb "addressed, " but it denotes the _quality_ of thenoun _terms_ understood; for which reason it should be an adjective, _suitable_. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The man was slowly wandering about, _solitarily_ and distressed. 

He lived in a manner _agreeably_ to his condition. 

The study of Syntax should be _previously_ to that of Punctuation. 

He introduced himself in a manner very _abruptly_. 

_Conformably_ to their vehemence of thought, was their vehemence ofgesture. 

I saw him _previously_ to his arrival. 

LECTURE VII

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A PREPOSITION is a word which serves to connect words, and show therelation between them. 

The term _preposition_ is derived from the two Latin words, _pre_, whichsignifies _before_, and _pono, to place_. Prepositions are so called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which theygovern in the objective case. 

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, whichyou may now commit to memory, and thus you will be enabled todistinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them incomposition. 

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

of, over, at, after, betwixt, to, under, near, about, beside, for, through, up, against, athwart, by, above, down, unto, towards, with, below, before, across, notwithstanding, in, between, behind, around, out of, into, beneath, off, amidst, instead of, within, from, on upon, throughout, over against, without, beyond, among, underneath, according to. 

This list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions, and sometimes as adverbs; but when you shall have become acquainted withthe _nature_ of the preposition, and of the conjunction and adverb too, you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classesany word belongs. 

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, that itperforms a _double_ office in a sentence, namely, it _connects_ words, and also shows a _relation_ between them. I will first show you the useand importance of this part of speech as a connective. When corn isripe--October, it is gathered--the field--men--whogo--hill--hill--baskets, --which they put the ears. You perceive, that inthis sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning; but let usfill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. "When corn is ripe, _in_ October, it is gathered _in_ the field _by_men, who go _from_ hill _to_ hill _with_ baskets, _into_ which they putthe ears. "

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our languagewould be very deficient without prepositions to connect the variouswords of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing butnonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs thisoffice, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX. ;in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as aconnective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In thenext place I will show you how prepositions express a _relation_ betweenwords. 

The boy's hat is _under_ his arm. In this expression, what relation doesthe preposition _under_ show? You know that _hat_ and _arm_ are wordsused as signs of two objects, or ideas; but _under_ is _not_ the sign ofa thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the _relation_existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since theword _under_ is the sign of the _relation_ existing between particular_ideas_, it also expresses a relation existing between the words _hat_and _arm_, which words are the representatives of those ideas. 

The boy holds his hat _in_ his hand. In this sentence the preposition_in_ shows the relation existing between _hat_ and _hand_, or thesituation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say, The boy's hat is _on_ his head, you perceive that _on_ showsthe relation between _hat_ and _head_. Again, in the expressions, Theboy threw his hat _up stairs_--_under_ the bed--_behind_ thetable--_through_ the window--_over_ the house--_across_ thestreet--_into_ the water--and so on, you perceive that the severalprepositions express the different relations existing between the _hat_and the other nouns, _stairs, bed, table, window, house, street_, and_water_. 

A preposition tells _where_ a thing is: thus, "The pear is on theground, _under_ the tree. "

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do _not_ express anaction done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or participledoes. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in theobjective case, because it is the object of the _relation_ expressed bythe preposition, and _not_ the object of an _action_. 

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the _objective case_, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informedyou, that the objective case expresses the object of an action _or_ of arelation; and, also, that there are _three_ parts of speech which governnouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, _active-transitiveverbs, participles derived from transitive verbs_, and _prepositions_. Anoun or pronoun in the objective case, cannot be, at the same time, theobject of an action _and_ of a relation. It must be either the object ofan action _or_ of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb orparticiple, it is the object of an _action_; as, The tutor _instructs_his _pupils_; or, The tutor is _instructing_ his _pupils_; but whenevera noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is the object of a_relation_; as, The tutor gives good instruction _to_ his _pupils_. 

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please to reviewthis lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner previouslyrecommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off yourbook and repeat them two or three times over in your mind. This coursewill enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wishto proceed with ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter ofthe preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it anunpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall havelearned thus far, you will understand _seven_ parts of speech; and only_three_ more will remain to be learned. 

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit thefollowing _order_, and then proceed in parsing. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing a_ PREPOSITION, is--a preposition, and why?--whatdoes it connect?--what relation does it show?

"He saw an antelope _in_ the _wilderness. "_

_In_ is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and showthe relation between them--it connects the words "antelope" and"wilderness"--and shows the relation between them. 

_Wilderness_ is a noun, the name of a place--com. The name of a sort orspecies--neut. Gend. It denotes a thing without sex--third pers. Spokenof--sing. Num. It implies but one--and in the objective case, it is theobject of a _relation_ expressed by the preposition "in, " and governedby it, according to

RULE 31. _Prepositions govern the objective case_. 

The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stand before _he_;Hand the paper to _they_. Prepositions _require_ the pronoun followingthem to be in the objective form, position, or case; and thisrequisition amounts to _government_. Hence we say, "Stand before _him_;""Hand the paper to _them_. " Every preposition expresses a relation, andevery relation must have an _object_: consequently, every prepositionmust be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the mostexcellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair Cynthia smiles serenely overnature's soft repose. Life's varying schemes no more distract thelaboring mind of man. Septimius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore ofEgypt. 

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly piousman. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, likeswift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. 

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast;and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards. 

 Love still pursues an ever devious race, True to the winding lineaments of grace. 

 * * * * *

NOTE. --The words _my_ and _and_ you need not parse. The noun "meteors, "following the adverb "like, " is in the objective case, and governed by_unto_ understood, according to NOTE 2, under Rule 32. The noun "home"is governed by _to_ understood, according to Rule 32. 

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. 

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by apreposition understood; as, "Give _him_ that book;" that is, "Give thatbook _to_ him;" "Ortugrul was one _day_ wandering, " &c. That is, _on_one day. "Mercy gives _affliction_ a grace;" that is, Mercy gives agrace _to_ affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32. 

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention isrequisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of_by_ and _with;_ as, "He walks _with_ a staff _by_ moonlight;" "He wastaken _by_ stratagem, and killed _with_ a sword. " Put the onepreposition for the other, and say, "He walks _by_ a staff _with_moonlight;" "He was taken _with_ stratagem, and killed _by_ a sword;"and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ from the formerin signification, more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a _preposition;_ as, to_up_hold, to _with_stand, to _over_look; and this composition gives anew meaning to the verb; as, to _under_stand, to _with_draw, to_for_give. But the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb; in which situation it does notless affect the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning; and in allinstances, whether the preposition is placed either before or after theverb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may be considered as _apart of the verb_. Thus, _to cast_ means _to throw_; but _to cast up_ anaccount, signifies _to compute_ it; therefore _up_ is a part of theverb. The phrases, _to fall on, to bear out, to give over_, convey verydifferent meanings from what they would if the prepositions _on, out_and _over_, were not used. Verbs of this kind are called _compound_verbs. 

You may now answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term _preposition_ derived?--Why is it thusnamed?--Repeat the list of prepositions. --Name the three parts of speechthat govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case. --When is a noun orpronoun in the objective case, the object of an action?--When is it theobject of a relation?--Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. --Whatrule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by apreposition?--Does every preposition require an objective case afterit?--Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a prepositionunderstood?--Give examples. --What is said of verbs compounded of a verband preposition?--Give the origin and meaning of the prepositionsexplained in the Philosophical Notes. 

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 _From_, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun _frum_, beginning, source, author. "He came _from (beginning_) Rochester. " _Of_, he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and Saxon noun _afora_, consequence, offspring, follower. "Solomon, the son _of (offspring_) David. " _Of_ or _off_, in its modern acceptation, signifies _disjoined, sundered_: A piece _of (off_) the loaf, is, a piece _disjoined_, or _separated_ from the loaf. The fragrance _of_ or _off_ the rose. 

 _For_ signifies _cause_. "I write _for_ your satisfaction;" i. E. Your satisfaction being the _cause. By_ or _be_ is the imperative _byth_, of the Saxon _beon_, to be. _With_, the imperative of _withan_, to join; or, when equivalent to _by_, of _wyr-than_, to be. "I will go _with_ him. " "I, _join_ him, will go. " _In_ comes from the Gothic noun _inna_, the interior of the body; a cave or cell. _About_, from _boda_, the first outward boundary. _Among_ is the past part. Of _gamaengan_, to mingle. _Through_ or _thorough_ is the Gothic substantive _dauro_, or the Teutonic _thuruh_. It means passage, gate, door. 

 _Before_--_be-fore, be-hind, be-low, be-side, be-sides, be-neath_ are formed by combining the imperative, _be_, with the nouns _fore, hind, low, side, neath. Neath_--Saxon _neothan, neothe_, has the same signification as _nadir. Be-tween, be-twixt_--_be_ and _twain_. A dual preposition. _Be-yond_--_be-passed. Beyond_ a place, means, _be passed_ that place. _Notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with, not-withstanding_. "Any order to the contrary not-withstanding, " (this order;) i. E. _not_ effectually _withstanding_ or _opposing_ it. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE VIII. 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid thetoo frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence. 

The word _pronoun_ comes from the two Latin words, _pro_, which means_for_, or _instead of_, and _nomen_, a _name_, or _noun. _ Hence youperceive, that _pronoun_ means _for a noun_, or _instead of a noun_. 

In the sentence, "The man is happy; _he_ is benevolent; _he_ is useful;"you perceive, that the word _he_ is used instead of the noun _man;_consequently _he_ must be a _pronoun_. You observe, too, that, by makinguse of the pronoun _he_ in this sentence, we avoid the _repetition_ ofthe _noun_ man, for without the pronoun, the sentence would be renderedthus, "The man is happy; _the man_ is benevolent; _the man_ is useful. "

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pronounsalways _stand for_ nouns, but they do not always _avoid the repetition_of nouns. _Repetition_ means _repeating_ or mentioning the same thingagain. In the sentence, "I come to die for my country, " the pronouns, _I_ and _my, stand_ for the name of the person who speaks; but they donot _avoid the repetition_ of that name, because the name or noun forwhich the pronouns are used, is not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the_third_ person, generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for whichthey stand; but pronouns of the _first_ and _second_ person, sometimesavoid the repetition of nouns, and sometimes they do not. 

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you itsimportance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehended. Ifwe had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to expressourselves in this manner: "A woman went to a man, and told the man thatthe man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers; as a gangof robbers had made preparations for attacking the man. The man thankedthe woman for the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defendthe man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a neighbor's. "

This would be a laborious style indeed; but, by the help of pronouns, wecan express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness: "Awoman went to a man, and told _him_, that _he_ was in great danger ofbeing murdered by a gang of robbers, _who_ had made preparations forattacking _him. He_ thanked _her_ for _her_ kindness, and, as _he_ wasunable to defend _himself_, _he_ left _his_ house and went to aneighbor's. "

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be at a loss totell which words are pronouns; and you will observe too, that they allstand for nouns. 

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds, the _Personal_, the_Adjective_, and the _Relative_ pronouns. They are all known by the_lists_. 

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from therelative, by their denoting the _person_ of the nouns for which theystand. There are five of them; _I_, _thou, he, she, it_; with theirplurals, _We, ye_ or _you, they_. 

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case. 

GENDER. When we speak of a _man_, we say, _he, his, him_; when we speakof a _woman_, we say, _she, hers, her_; and when we speak of a _thing_, we say _it_. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as wellas to nouns. Example; "The general, in gratitude to the lady, offered_her his_ hand; but _she_, not knowing _him_, declined accepting _it_. "The pronouns _his_ and _him_, in this sentence, personate or representthe noun _general_; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender: _her_and _she_ personate the _lady_; therefore, they are feminine: and _it_represents _hand_; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. Thisillustration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same genderas the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to thevariation of the pronouns to express the sex, Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, _he, she, it. He_ is masculine; _she_ is feminine; _it_ is neuter. 

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second personsare not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of thethird. The reason is obvious. The first person, that is, the personspeaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at thesame time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be present;from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be markedby a distinction of gender; but the third person, that is, the person orthing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarilyrequires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked by a distinctionof gender. 

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first andsecond person, and also to the plural number of the third person; butthese have no peculiar form to denote their gender; therefore they haveno agreement, in this respect, with the nouns which they represent. 

PERSON. Pronouns have three persons in each number. 

_I_, is the first person }_Thou_, is the second person } Singular. _He, she_, or _it_, is the third person }

_We_, is the first person }_Ye_ or _you_, is the second person } Plural. _They_, is the third person }

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse:first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself; secondly, he mayspeak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speakof some other person; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, andthe persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have aplural number. 

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree, in person withthe nouns they represent; but pronouns of the first person, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun;but nouns are _never_ of the first person, therefore these pronounscannot agree in person with their nouns. 

NUMBER. Pronouns, like nouns, have two numbers, the singular and theplural; as, _I, thou, he_; _we, ye_ or _you, they_. 

CASE. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and theobjective. 

In the next place I will present to you the _declension_ of the personalpronouns, which declension you must commit to memory before you proceedany farther. 

The advantages resulting from the committing of the followingdeclension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be tooparticular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimesvery difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from theobjective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a differencein termination; but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personalpronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. Bystudying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of thepronouns, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers. 

DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

 FIRST PERSON. _Sing. _Plur_. _Nom_. I, we, _Poss_. My _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, _Obj_. Me. Us. 

SECOND PERSON. _Sing_. _Plur_. _Nom_. Thou, ye _or_ you, _Poss_. Thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, _Obj_. Thee. You. 

THIRD PERSON. _Mas. Sing. _ _Plur_. _Nom_, he, they, _Poss_. His, their _or_ theirs, _Obj_. Him. Them. 

THIRD PERSON. _Fem. Sing. _ _Plur_. _Nom_. She, they, _Poss_. Her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs. _Obj_. Her. Them. 

THIRD PERSON. _Neut. Sing. _ _Plur_. _Nom_. It, they, _Poss_. Its, their _or_ theirs, _Obj. _ it. Them. 

 * * * * *

 NOTES. 

 1. When _self_ is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselves, &c. They are called _compound personal pronouns_, and are used in the nominative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 

 2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the terminations _est, edst_, in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative _thou_, a modern innovation which substitutes _you_ for _thou_, in familiar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style. _You_ was formerly restricted to the plural number; but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that when used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains its original _plural form_; and, therefore, the verb connected with it, should always be plural. Inattention to this peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the erroneous conclusion, that, because _you_ implies unity when it represents a singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular verb; as, "When _was you_ there?" "How far _was you_ from the parties?" Such a construction, however, is not supported by _good_ usage, nor by analogy. It is as manifest a solecism as to say, We _am_, or we _is_. Were it, in any case, admissible to connect a singular verb with _you_, the use of _was_ would still be ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and third persons, and _you_ is second person. _Wast_ being second person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you _wast_. We never use the singular of the present tense with you:--you _art_, you _is_; you _walkest_, you _walks_. Why, then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with this pronoun? In every point of view, the construction, "When _were_ you there?" "How far _were_ you from the parties?" is preferable to the other. 

 3. The words _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, are, by many, denominated _possessive adjective pronouns_; but they always _stand for_ nouns in the possessive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the _personal_ pronouns. That principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. Example: "The lady gave the gentleman _her_ watch for _his_ horse. " In this sentence _her_ personates, or stands for, the noun "lady, " and _his_ represents "gentleman. " This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, "The lady gave the gentleman the _lady's_ watch for the _gentleman's_ horse. " If _lady's_ and _gentleman's_ are nouns, _her_ and _his_ must be personal pronouns. The same remarks apply to _my, thy, our, your, their_ and _its_. This view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their non-existence, but it is believed, nevertheless, to be based on sound reason and common sense. 

 4. _Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, have, by many respectable grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pronouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, that a little attention to the meaning and office of these words, will clearly show the impropriety of both these classifications. Those who pursue the former arrangement, allege, that, in the examples, "You may imagine what kind of faith _theirs_ was; My pleasures are past; _hers_ and _yours_ are to come; they applauded his conduct, but condemned _hers_ and _yours_, " the words _theirs, hers_, and _yours_, are personal pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _their faith_ was;--_her pleasures_ and _your pleasures_ are to come;--but condemned _her conduct_ and _your conduct_;" or thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them was;--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come;-- but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you. " But these constructions, (both of which are correct, ) prove too much for their purpose; for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these words, they are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning, and the nouns which we supply: thus, _theirs_ becomes, their faith: _hers_, her pleasures; and _yours_, your pleasures. This evidently gives us two words instead of, and altogether distinct from, the first; so that, in parsing, _their faith_, we are not, in reality, analyzing _theirs_, but two other words of which _theirs_ is the proper representative. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case. Without attempting to develop the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts, _ne_ and _s_, which were, no doubt, formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present application of these pronouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also the thing possessed, which gives them a _compound_ character. They may, therefore, be properly denominated COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS; and, as they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two other words, and, consequently, including two cases, they should, like the compound relative _what_, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, "You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was, " _theirs_ is a compound personal pronoun, equivalent to _their faith. Their_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun; personal, it personates the persons spoken of, understood; third pers. Plur. Numb. , &c. --and in the possessive case, and governed by "faith, " according to Rule 12. _Faith_ is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. &c. --and in the nominative case to "was, " and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if we render the sentence thus, "You may imagine what kind of faith _the faith of them[4]_ was, " _faith_ would be in the nominative case to "was, " and _them_ would be in the objective case, and governed by "of:" Rule 31. 

[4] In the note next preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can moreclearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion, than thislatter construction of the word theirs? All admit, that, in theconstruction, "The faith _of them_, " the word _them_, is a personalpronoun: and for this conclusive reason:--it represents a noununderstood. What, then, is _their_, in the phrase, "their faith?" Isit not obvious, that, if _them_ is a personal pronoun, _their_ mustbe, also? for the latter represents the same noun as the former. 

 Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose book? and the answer be, _mine, ours, hers_, or _theirs_, the word book is included in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine _book_, ours _book_, hers _book_, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be giving a _double_ answer: but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied; as, Whose book? John's, Richard's; that is, John's _book_; Richard's _book_. 

 This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds _what, whoever_, and _others_, is respectfully submitted to the public; believing, that those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. Should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interrogatory: If _what_, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours_, and _theirs_?

 5. _Mine_ and _thine_, instead of _my_ and _thy_, are used in solemn style, before a word beginning with a vowel or silent _h_; as, "Blot out all _mine_ iniquities;" and when thus used, they are not compound. _His_ always has the same form, whether simple or compound; as, "Give John _his_ book; That desk is _his. " Her_, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case; as, Take _her_ hat: when standing alone, it is in the objective case; as, Give the hat to _her_. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and committed the_declension_ of the personal pronouns, you may commit the followingSYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing a_ PERSONAL PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, andwhy?--personal, and why?--person, and why?--gender and number, andwhy?--RULE: case, and why?--RULE. --Decline it. 

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronounsin their different persons; therefore, if you wish ever to parse themcorrectly, you must pay particular attention to the manner in which thefollowing are analyzed. Now notice, particularly, and you will perceivethat we apply only _one_ rule in parsing _I_ and _my_, and _two_ inparsing _thou, him_, and _they_. 

 "_I_ saw _my_ friend. "

_I_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it representsthe person speaking, understood--first person, it denotes thespeaker--singular number, it implies but one--and in the nominativecase, it represents the actor and subject of the verb "saw, " and governsit, agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. Case gov. The verb_. Declined--firstpers. Sing. Num. Nom. I, poss. My or mine, obj. Me. Plur. Nom. We, poss. Our or ours, obj. Us. 

_My_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, itpersonates the person speaking, understood--first pers. It denotes thespeaker--sing. Num. It implies but one--and in the possessive case, itdenotes possession; it is governed by the noun "friend", agreeably toRULE 12. _A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by thenoun it possesses_. Declined--first pers. Sing. Nom. I, poss. My ormine, obj. Me. Plur. Nom. We, poss. Our or ours, obj. Us. 

 "Young man, _thou_ hast deserted thy companion, and left _him_ in distress. "

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, itpersonates "man"--second person, it represents the person spokento--mas. Gend. Sing. Num. Because the noun "man" is for which it stands, according to RULE 13. _Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns forwhich they stand in gender and number_. 

_Thou_ is in the nom. Case, it represents the actor and subject of theverb "hast deserted, " and governs it agreeably to RULE 3. _The nom. Casegoverns the verb. _ Declined--sec. Pers. Sing. Num. Nom. Thou, poss. Thyor thine, obj. Thee. Plur. Nom. Ye or you, poss. Your or yours, obj. You. 

_Him_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, itpersonates "companion"--third pers. It represents the person spokenof--mas. Gend. Sing. Num. Because the noun "companion" is for which itstands: RULE 13. _Pers. Pro. &c_. (Repeat the Rule. )--_Him_ is in theobjective case, the object of the action expressed by theactive-transitive verb "hast left, " and gov. By it: RULE 20. _Active-trans. Verbs gov. The obj. Case_. Declined--third pers. Mas. Gend. Sing. Num. Nom. He, poss. His, obj. Him. Plur. Nom. They, poss. Their or theirs, obj. Them. 

 "Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat, but _they_ dreaded the force of my arm. "

_They_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, itrepresents "chiefs"--third pers. It denotes the persons spoken of--mas. Gend. Plur. Num. Because the noun "chiefs" is for which it stands: RULE13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. (Repeat the Rule. ) It is the nom. Case, itrepresents the actors and subject of the verb "dreaded, " and governs it:RULE 3. _The nom. Case, gov. The verb_. Declined--third pers. Mas. Gend. Sing. Num. Nom. He, poss. His, obj. Him. Plur. Nom. They, poss. Their ortheirs, obj. Them. 

NOTE. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (excepting the third person singular, ) if the nouns they represent areunderstood; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But when the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and _two_Rules. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. My friendsvisit me very often at my father's office. We improve ourselves by closeapplication. Horace, thou learnest many lessons. Charles, you, by yourdiligence, make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor. Youngladies, you run over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drovehis horses too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them. 

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared before us:its winding stream murmured through the grove. The dark host of Rothmarstood on its banks, with their glittering spears. We fought along thevale. They fled. Rothmar sunk beneath my sword. Day was descending inthe west, when I brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt themwith his hands: joy brightened his thoughts. 

NOTE. _Horace, Charles_, and _ladies_, are of the second person, andnom. Case _independent_: see RULE 5, and NOTE. The first _you_ is usedin the nom. Poss. And obj. Case. --It represents Charles, therefore it is_singular_ in sense, although plural in form. In the next example, _you_personifies _ladies_, therefore it is _plural. Given_ is a perfectparticiple. _You_ following given, is governed by _to_ understood, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 32. _Run over_ is a compound verb. _And_is a conjunction. The first _its_ personates vale; the second _its_represents stream. 

You may now parse the following examples three times over. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

 "Juliet, retain her paper, and present _yours_. "

_Yours_ is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessorand the thing possessed, and is equivalent to _your paper_. _Your_ is apronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, it personates"Juliet"--second person, it represents the person spoken to--fem. Gender, sing. Number, (singular in sense, but _plural_ in form, ) becausethe noun Juliet is for which it stands: Rule 13. _Pers. Pron. &c_. --_Your_ is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and isgoverned by "paper, " according to Rule 12. _A noun or pron. &c. _ (Repeatthe Rule, and decline the pronoun. ) _Paper_ is a noun, the name of athing--common, the name of a sort of things--neuter gender, it denotes athing without sex--third person, spoken of--sing. Number, it implies butone--and in the obj. Case, it is the object of the action expressed bythe transitive verb "present, " and governed by it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs govern the obj. Case_. 

NOTE. Should it be objected, that _yours_ does not mean _your paper_, any more than it means _your book, your house, your_ any thing, let itbe borne in mind, that pronouns have no _definite_ meaning, like otherwords; but their _particular_ signification is always determined by thenouns they represent. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Julia injured her book, and soiled mine: hers is better than mine. Myfriend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours: his deeds deserve reward;yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past; thine are to come. Weleave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours arekin. 

NOTE. _She_ understood, is nominative to _soiled_, in the first example;and the substantive part of _mine_, after than, is nom. To _is_, understood: Rule 35. The verbs _to secure_ and _to come_ have nonominative. The pronouns _mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my_, and _yours_, personate nouns understood. 

REMARKS ON _IT_. 

For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun _it_, manygrammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how toaccount for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. Itis in great demand by writers of every description. They use it withoutceremony; either in the nominative or objective case; either torepresent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied to nounsin the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, itrepresents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number ofsentences taken in a mass. 

A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of allits mystery. _It_, formerly written _hit_, according to H. Tooke, is thepast participle of the Moeso-Gothic verb _haitan_. It means, _the said_, and, therefore, like its near relative _that_, meaning, _the assumed_, originally had no respect, in its application, to number, person, orgender. "_It_ is a wholesome law;" i. E. _the_ _said_ (law) is awholesome law; or, _that_ (law) is a wholesome law;--_the assumed_ (law)is a wholesome law. "_It_ is the man; I believe _it_ to be them:"--_thesaid_ (man) is the man; _that_ (man) is the man: I believe _the said_(persons) to be them; I believe _that_ persons (according to the ancientapplication of _that_) to be them. "_It_ happened on a summer's day, that many people were assembled, " &c. --Many people were assembled: _it, that_, or _the said_ (fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. 

_It_, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not referredto a noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. "How is_it_ with you?" that is, "How is your _state_ or _condition_?" "_It_rains; _It_ freezes; _It_ is a hard winter;"--_The rain_ rains; _Thefrost_ frosts or freezes; _The said_ (winter) is a hard winter. "_It_ isdelightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love tothe end of their days. " What is delightful? _To see brothers and sistersliving in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, this thing_, is delightful. _It_, then, stands for all that part of the sentenceexpressed in italics; and the sentence will admit of the followingconstruction; "To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the endof their days, is delightful. "

 * * * * *

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, or, more properly, SPECIFYINGADJECTIVES, are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by somedistinct specification. 

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character. Theformer _stand for_ nouns, and never belong to them; the latter _belongto_ nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a thing as an_adjective-pronoun_ cannot exist. _Each, every, either, this, that, some, other_, and the residue, are pure adjectives. 

Those specifying adjectives commonly called Adjective Pronouns, may bedivided into three sorts; the _distributive_, the _demonstrative_, andthe _indefinite_. They are all known by the _lists_. 

I. The _distributive adjectives_ are those that denote the persons orthings that make up a number, each taken separately and singly. _List:each, every, either_, and sometimes _neither_; as, "_Each_ of hisbrothers is in a favorable situation;" "_Every_ man must account forhimself;" "_Neither_ of them is industrious. "

These distributives are words which are introduced into language in itsrefined state, in order to express the nicest shades and colors ofthought. "_Man_ must account for himself;" "_Mankind_ must account forthemselves;" "_All men_ must account for themselves;" "_All men, women, _and _children, _ must account for themselves;" "_Every man_ must accountfor himself. " Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. But the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the mindto contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of _every, distributes_them, and presents each separately and singly; and whatever is affirmedof one individual, the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole humanrace. 

_Each_ relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either ofthe two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

_Every_ relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one ofthem all taken separately. 

_Either_ relates to _two_ persons or things taken separately, andsignifies the one or the other. "_Either_ of the _three_, " is animproper expression. It should be, "any of the three. "

_Neither_ imports _not either_; that is, not one nor the other; as, "_Neither_ of my friends was there. " When an allusion is made to morethan _two, none_ should be used instead of _neither_; as, "_None_ of myfriends was there. "

 * * * * *

II. The _demonstrative_ are those which precisely point out the subjectto which they relate. _List: this_ and _that_, and their plurals, _these_ and _those_, and _former_ and _latter_; as, "_This_ is truecharity; "_that_ is only its image. "

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and applicationof _the_ and _that_. When reference is made to a particular book, wesay, "Take _the_ book;" but when we wish to be very pointed and precise, we say, "Take _that_ book;" or, if it be near by, "Take _this_ book. "You perceive, then, that these demonstratives have all the force of thedefinite article, and a little more. 

_This_ and _these_ refer to the nearest persons or things, _that_ and_those_ to the most distant; as, "_These_ goods are superior to those. "_This_ and _these_ indicate the latter, or last mentioned; _that_ and_those_, the former, or first mentioned; as, "Both _wealth_ and_poverty_ are temptations; _that_ tends to excite pride, _this_, discontent. "

 "_Some_ place the bliss in action, _some_ in ease; _Those_ call it pleasure, and contentment, _these_. "

_They, those_. As it is the office of the personal _they_ to represent anoun previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slightdeparture from analogy in the following application of it: "_They_ whoseek after wisdom, are sure to find her: _They_ that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy. " This usage, however, is well established, and_they_, in such constructions, is generally employed in preference to_those_. 

 * * * * *

III. The _indefinite_ are those which express their subjects in anindefinite or general manner. _List: some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, another none_. Of these, _one_ and _other_ are declined likenouns. _Another_ is declined, but wants the plural. 

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave themeaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight shade ofdifference in meaning, we say, Give me _a_ paper, _one_ paper, _any_paper, _some_ paper, and so on. Though these words restrict the meaningof the noun, they do not fix it to a _particular_ object. We thereforecall them indefinite. 

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nounsunderstood, in which situation they should be parsed accordingly; as"You may take _either_; He is pleased with _this_ book, but dislikes_that_ (book;) _All_ (men) have sinned, but _some_ (men) have repented. "

The words, _one, other_, and _none_, are used in both numbers; and, whenthey _stand for_ nouns, they are not adjectives, but indefinite_pronouns_; as, "The great _ones_ of the world have their failings;""Some men increase in wealth, while _others_ decrease;" "_None_ escape. "

The word "ones, " in the preceding example, does not belong to a noununderstood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The meaning is not "thegreat one men, nor ones men, " therefore _one_ is not an adjectivepronoun; but the meaning is, "The great _men_ of the world, " therefore_ones_ is a pronoun of the indefinite kind, representing the noun _men_understood, and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun. The word_others_, in the next example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to_other men_; and should be parsed like _mine, thine_, &c. See Note 4th, page 100. 

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some examples for you toanalyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, you should be at a lossfor definitions and rules, please to refer to the compendium. But beforeyou proceed, you may commit the following

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an ADJECTIVE PRONOUN, is--an adjective pronoun, andwhy?--distributive, demonstrative, or indefinite, and why?--to whatnoun does it belong, or with what does it agree?--RULE. 

"_One_ man instructs many _others. " One_ is an adjective pronoun, orspecifying adjective, it specifically points out a noun--indefinite, itexpresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner, and belongs tothe noun "man, " according to RULE 19. _Adjective pronouns belong tonouns, expressed or understood_. 

_Others_ is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective pronoun anda noun, and is equivalent to _other men_. _Other_ is an adjectivepronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun--indefinite, itexpresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and belongs to _men_:Rule 19. (Repeat the rule. ) _Men_ is a noun, a name denotingpersons--common, &c. (parse it in full;) and in the objective case, itis the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb"instructs, " and gov. By it: Rule 20. _Active-transitive verbs, &c_. 

 "_Those_ books are _mine_. "

_Those_ is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is referredto--demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which itrelates--and agrees with the noun "books" in the plural number, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 19. _Adjective pronouns must agree innumber with their nouns_. 

_Mine_ is a compound personal pronoun, including both the possessor andthe thing possessed, and is equivalent to _my books_. _My_ is a pron. Aword used instead of a noun--personal, it stands for the name of theperson speaking--first person, it denotes the speaker--sing. Number, itimplies but one--and in the poss. Case, it denotes possession, and isgov. By "books, " according to Rule 12. (Repeat the rule, and declinethe pronoun. ) _Books_ is a noun, the name of a thing--common, &c. (parseit in full;)--and in the nominative case after "are, " according to RULE21. _The verb_ to be _admits the same case after it as before it_. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. That book belongs tothe tutor, this belongs to me. Some men labor, others labor not; theformer increase in wealth, the latter decrease. The boy wounded the oldbird, and stole the young ones. None performs his duty too well. None ofthose poor wretches complain of their miserable lot. 

NOTE. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, NOTE 2, undoRule 19, should be applied. 

 * * * * *

III. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrasegoing before, which is called the antecedent. They are _who, which_, and_that_. 

The word _antecedent_, comes from the two Latin words, _ante, before_, and _cedo, to go_. Hence you perceive, that antecedent means goingbefore; thus, "The _man_ is happy _who_ lives virtuously; This is the_lady who_ relieved my wants; _Thou who_ lovest wisdom, &c. _We who_speak from experience, " &c. The relative who, in these sentences, relates to the several words, _man, lady, thou_, and _we_, which words, you observe, come before the relative: they are, therefore, properlycalled antecedents. 

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or number, likea personal pronoun. When we use a personal pronoun, in speaking of aman, we say _he_, and of a woman, _she_; in speaking of one person orthing, we use a singular pronoun, of more than one, a plural, and so on;but there is no such variation of the relative. _Who_, in the first ofthe preceding examples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. Gend. Thirdpers. Sing. ; in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. Gend. ; in thethird, it is of the second pers. ; and in the fourth, it is of the firstpers. Plur. Num. ; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in eachexample. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar _form_ todenote its gend. Pers. And num. , but it always agrees with itsantecedent _in sense_. Thus, when I say, The _man who_ writes, _who_ ismas. Gend. And sing. ; but when I say, The _ladies who_ write, _who_ isfeminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the gend. Pers. And num. Ofthe relative, you must always look at its antecedent. 

WHO, WHICH, and THAT. 

_Who_ is applied to _persons, which_ to _things_ and _brutes_; as, "Heis a _friend who_ is faithful in adversity; The _bird which_ sung sosweetly, is flown; This is the _tree which_ produces no fruit. "

_That_ is often used as a relative, to prevent the too frequentrepetition of _who_ and _which_. It is applied both to persons andthings; as, "_He that_ acts wisely, deserves praise; Modesty is a_quality that_ highly adorns a woman. "

 NOTES. 

 1. _Who_ should never be applied to animals. The following application of it is erroneous:--"He is like a _least_ of prey, _who_ destroys without pity. " It should be, _that_ destroys, &c. 

 2. _Who_ should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, "The _child whom_ we have just seen, " &c. It should be, "The child _that_ we have just seen. "

 3. _Which_ may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one person of two, or a particular person among a number of others; as, "_Which_ of the two? _Which_ of them is he?"

 4. _That_, in preference to _who_ or _which_, is applied to persons when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by the pronominal adjective _same_; as, "Charles XII. , king of Sweden, was one of the _greatest_ madmen _that_ the world ever saw;--He is the _same_ man _that_ we saw before. "

 5. _That_ is employed after the interrogative _who_, in cases like the following; "Who _that_ has any sense of religion, would have argued thus?"

When the word _ever_ or _soever_ is annexed to a relative pronoun, thecombination is called a _compound pronoun_; as, _whoever_ or _whosoever, whichever_ or _whichsoever, whatever_ or _whatsoever_. 

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

_Nom. _ who, _Poss. _ whose, _Obj. _ whom. " whoever, " whosever, " whomever. " whosoever, " whosesoever, " whomsoever. 

_Which_ and _that_ are indeclinable, except that _whose_ is sometimesused as the possessive case of _which_; as, "Is there any other doctrine_whose_ followers are punished;" that is, the followers _of which_ arepunished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers;but the construction is not to be recommended, for it is a departurefrom a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in theirapplications, should be confined to rational beings. 

_That_ may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunction, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence. 

_That_ is a relative only when it can be changed to _who_ or _which_without destroying the sense; as, "They _that_ (who) reprove us, may beour best friends; From every thing _that_ (which) you see, deriveinstruction. " _That_ is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied; as, "Return _that_ book; _That_ belongs to me; Give me _that_. " When _that_is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun, it is a conjunction; as, "Take care _that_ every day be well employed. " The word _that_, in thislast sentence, cannot be changed to _who_ or _which_ without destroyingthe sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun; neither doesit point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not anadjective pronoun; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is aconjunction. 

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word _that_, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a relative or anadjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given; and wheneverthese signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction. 

Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give youone example of affronted _that_, which may serve as a caution. The tutorsaid, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that ladyparsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. This sentence, though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words, isstrictly grammatical. The first _that_ is a noun; the second, aconjunction; the third, an adjective pronoun; the fourth, a noun; thefifth, a relative pronoun; the sixth, an adjective pronoun; the seventh, a noun; the eighth, a relative pronoun; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus; Thetutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that _which_ thatlady parsed, was not the that _which_ that gentleman requested her toanalyze. 

WHAT. 

_What_ is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedentand the relative, and is equivalent to _that which_; as, "This is _what_I wanted;" that is, _that which_, or, _the thing which_ I wanted. 

_What_ is compounded of _which that_. These words have been contractedand made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being stillretained: _what--wh[ich--t]hat_; (_which-that_. ) Anciently it appearedin the varying forms, _tha qua, qua tha, qu'tha, quthat, quhat, hwat_, and finally, _what_. 

_What_ may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. When it is equivalent to _that which, the thing which_, or _those thingswhich_, it is a compound relative, because it includes both theantecedent and the relative; as, "I will try _what_ (that which) can befound in female delicacy; _What_ you recollect with most pleasure, arethe virtuous actions of your past life;" that is, _those things which_you recollect, &c. 

When _what_ is a compound relative, you must always parse it as twowords; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and giveit a case; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, _that_, the antecedent part of _what_, is in the obj. Case, governed bythe verb "will try;" _which_, the relative part, is in the nom. Case to"can be found. " "I have heard _what_ (i. E. _that which_, or _the thingwhich_) has been alleged. "

_Whoever_ and _whosoever_ are also compound relatives, and should beparsed like the compound _what_; as, "_Whoever_ takes that oath, isbound to enforce the laws. " In this sentence, _whoever_ is equivalent to_he who_, or, _the man who_; thus, "_He who_ takes that oath, is bound, "&c. 

_Who, which_, and _what_, when used in asking questions, are calledinterrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative kind; as, _"Who_ is he? _Which_ is the person? _What_ are you doing?"

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent; but they relate to the wordor phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent; as, "_Whom_ did you see? The _preceptor. What_ have you done? _Nothing_. "Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means preceding, or going before; and subsequent meansfollowing, or coming after. _What_, when used as an interrogative, isnever compound. 

_What, which_, and _that_, when joined to nouns, are specifyingadjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative orindefinite kind; as, "Unto _which_ promise our twelve tribes hope tocome;" "_What_ misery the vicious endure! _What_ havock hast thou made, foul monster, sin!"

_What_ and _which_, when joined to nouns in asking questions, aredenominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, "_What man_ isthat? _Which road_ did he take?"

_What, whatever_, and _whatsoever, which, whichever_, and _whichsoever_, in constructions like the following, are compound pronouns, but notcompound relatives; as, "In _what_ character Butler was admitted, isunknown; Give him _what_ name you choose; Nature's care largely endows_whatever_ happy man will deign to use her treasures; Let him take_which_ course, or, _whichever_ course he will. " These sentences may berendered thus; "_That_ character, or, _the_ character in _which_ Butlerwas admitted, is unknown; Give him _that_ name, or, _the_ name _which_you choose; Nature's care endows _that_ happy man _who_ will deign, &c. ;Let him take _that_ course, or _the_ course _which_ he will. " A compoundrelative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. Thesecompounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first partof each word being the article _the_, or the adjective pronoun, _that_;therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives. --Withregard to the word _ever_ annexed to these pronouns, it is a singularfact, that, as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined, _ever_ is entirely excluded from the sentence. 

_What_ is sometimes used as an interjection; as, "But _what!_ is thyservant a dog, that he should do this? _What!_ rob us of our right ofsuffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons!"

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may sospeak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science;but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over this, yourfuture course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentleelevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of soberthinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relativepronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easilycomprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a veryimportant one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four orfive times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if youplease. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing a_ RELATIVE PRONOUN, is--a pronoun, andwhy?--relative, and why?--gender, person, and number, andwhy?--RULE:--case, and why?--RULE. --Decline it. 

 "This is the man _whom_ we saw. "

_Whom_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--relative, it relatesto "man" for its antecedent--mas. Gend. Third pers. Sing. Num. Becausethe antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 14. _Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. Whom_ is in the objective case, the object of theaction expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw, " and governed byit, agreeably to

RULE 16. _When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, therelative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in itsown member of the sentence_. 

_Whom_, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governsit, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline_who_. )

 "From _what_ is recorded, he appears, " &c. 

_What_ is a comp. Rel. Pron. Including both the antecedent and therelative, and is equivalent to _that which_, or the _thingwhich_--_Thing_, the antecedent part of _what_, is a noun, the name of athing--com. The name of a species--neuter gender, it has no sex--thirdperson, spoken of--sing. Number, it implies but one--and in the obj. Case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from, "and gov. By it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to whichI refer. ) _Which_, the relative part of _what_, is a pronoun, a wordused instead of a noun--relative, it relates to "thing" for itsantecedent--neut. Gender, third person, sing. Number, because theantecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. _Relpron_. &c. _Which_ is in the nom. Case to the verb "is recorded, "agreeably to

RULE 15. _The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when nonominative comes between it and the verb_. 

 "_What_ have you learned? Nothing. "

_What_ is a pron. A word used, &c. --relative of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word "nothing"for its _subsequent_, according to

RULE 17. _When the rel. Pron. Is of the interrog. Kind, it refers to theword or phrase containing the answer to the question, for itssubsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. What_ is of the neut. Gend. Third pers. Sing. Because the subsequent"nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. _Rel. Pron. Agree_, &c. --Itis in the obj. Case, the object of the action, of the active-transitiveverb "have learned, " and gov. By it, agreeably to RULE 16. _When a nom_. &c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule. 

NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. Pers. And numb, to the interrogativewhen the answer to the question is _not_ expressed. 

WHO, WHICH, WHAT. 

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns, " is in accordancewith the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfoldedaccording to their true character, they would be found to be verysimple, and, _doubtless_, much labor and perplexity, on the part of thelearner, would thereby be saved. 

Of the words called "relatives, " _who_, only, is a pronoun; and this isstrictly _personal_; more so, indeed, if we except _I_ and _we_, thanany other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. _I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you_, and _they, relate_ to antecedents, as well as _who. Which, that_, and _what_, are always adjectives. They never _stand for_, but always _belong_ to nouns, either expressed or implied. They_specify_, like many other adjectives, and _connect_ sentences. 

_Who_ supplies the place of _which_ or _what_ and its _personal noun_. _Who_ came? i. E. _what man, what woman, what person;--which man, woman_, or _person_, came? "They heard _what_ I said"--they heard _that_ (thing)_which_ (thing) I said. "Take _what_ (or _whichever_) course youplease;"--take _that_ course _which_ (course) you please to take. "_What_ have you done?" i. E. _what thing, act_, or _deed_ have youdone? "_Which thing_ I also did at Jerusalem. " "_Which_ will youtake?"--_which book, hat_, or something else? "This is the tree _which_(tree) produces no fruit. " "He _that_ (man, or _which_ man) acts wisely, deserves praise. "

They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives, " are at libertyto adopt it, and parse accordingly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that actswisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. Ibelieve what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies theheart, also fortifies it. What doest[5] thou? Nothing. What bookhave you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take?Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what hesaid. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see thisrepublic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold herliberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of theworld, is the enemy of God. 

[5] The second person singular of _do_, when used as a principalverb, is spelled with an _e_; thus, "What thou _doest_, do quickly;"but when employed as an auxiliary, the _e_ should be omitted; as, "_Dost_ thou not _behold_ a rock with its head of heath?"

 NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the objective case, before the verb that governs it. _Whom_, in every sentence except one, _house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him_, the third _what_ and _which_, the relative part of the first _two whats_, are all in the _objective_ case, and governed by the several verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. _Tree_ is nom. After is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of _whatever_, is nom. To "fortifies;" _which_, the relative part, is nom. To "purifies. " _Nothing_ is governed by _do_, and _poem_, by _have_, understood. _Henry_ is nominative to _does_, understood. _Whose_ and _John's_ are governed according to RULE 12. _I, thou, you, him_, &c. Represent nouns understood. _Him_, in the last sentence but five, is governed by _declare_, and _I_ is nominative to _declare. George_ and _Eliza_ are in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "_Whatever_ science, " &c. Is equivalent to, _that_ science _which_ suits your taste;--"_whichever_ pattern;" i. E. _that_ pattern _which_ pleases you best. _Whoever_ is a compound relative; _he_, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will behold. " _Take_ agrees with _you_ understood. _Forsake_ is in the infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25. 

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

_Which_ sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a wholesentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keephis commandments, _which_ is the whole duty of man. " What is the wholeduty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, thisphrase is the antecedent to _which_. 

The conjunction _as_, when it follows _such, many_, or _same_, isfrequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with _suchas_ have a refined taste;" that is, with _those who_, or _them whohave_, &c. "Let _such as_ presume to advise others, look well to theirown conduct;" that is, Let _those_, or _them who_ presume, &c. "_As manyas_ were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, _they, those_, or_all who_ were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the _same_ testimonials_as_ were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, _those_ testimonials_which_ were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply theellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, _as_ will be foundto be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with _such persons, as thosepersons are who_ have a refined taste; Let _such persons, as thosepersons are who_ presume, " &c. 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term pronoun derived?--Do pronouns always avoidthe repetition of nouns?--Name the three kinds of pronouns. --Whatdistinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?--How manypersonal pronouns are there?--Repeat them. --What belong to pronouns?--Isgender applied to all the personal pronouns?--To which of them is itapplied?--Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination todenote their gender?--How many persons have pronouns?--Speak them intheir different persons. --How many numbers have pronouns?--How manycases?--What are they?--Decline all the personal pronouns. --When _self_is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how arethey used?--When is _you_ singular in sense?--Is it ever singular inform?--Why are the words, _my, thy, his, her, our, your, their_, calledpersonal pronouns?--Why are the words, _mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs_, denominated compound pers. Pron. ?--How do you parsethese compounds?--What is said of _others_?--Repeat the order of parsinga personal pronoun. --What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of thefirst person, and in the nom. Case?--What rule when the pronoun is inthe possessive case?--What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns ofthe second and third person?--What Rules in parsing the compounds, _yours, ours, mine_, &c. ?--What is said of the pronoun _it_?

What are adjective pronouns?--Name the three kinds. --What does _each_relate to?--To what does _every_ relate?--To what does _either_relate?--What does _neither_ import?--To what do _this_ and _these_refer?--Give examples. --To what do _that_ and _those_ refer?--Giveexamples. --Repeat all the adjective pronouns. --When adj. Pronouns belongto nouns understood, how are they parsed?--When they stand for, orrepresent nouns, what are they called?--Give examples. --Repeat theorder of parsing an adj. Pronoun. --What Rule do you apply in parsingthe indefinite adjective pronouns?--What Notes, in parsing thedistributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?--Repeat them. --From what words is the termantecedent derived?--What does _antecedent_ mean?--Are relatives variedon account of gender, person, or number?--To what are _who_ and _which_applied?--To what is _that_ applied?--Should _who_ ever be applied toirrational beings or children?--In what instances may _which_ be appliedto persons?--Decline the rel. Pronouns. --Can _which_ and _that_ bedeclined?--Is _that_ ever used as three parts of speech?--Giveexamples. --What part of speech is the word _what_?--Is _what_ ever usedas three kinds of a pronoun?--Give examples. --What is said of_whoever_?--What words are used as interrogative pronouns?--Giveexamples. --When are the words, _what, which_, and _that_, called adj. Pron. ?--When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?--Whatis said of _whatever_ and _whichever_?--Is _what_ ever used as aninterjection?--Give examples. --Repeat the order of parsing a rel. Pron. --What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?--What Rules inparsing a compound relative?--What Rules in parsing aninterrogative?--Does the relative _which_ ever relate to a sentence forits antecedent?--When does the conjunction _as_ become a relative?--Giveexamples. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, itmust be in the nominative case. 

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun _him_ is the subject of theverb _will go_ understood, therefore him should be in the nominativecase, _he_, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE. ) _Him_ and Iare connected by the conjunction _and_, and _him_ is in the obj. Case, and I in the nom. , therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule. )In the second and third examples, _thee_ should be _thou_, according tothe NOTE. The verbs, _does_ and _is_, are of the third person, and thenom. _thou_ is second, for which reason the verbs should be of thesecond person, _dost do_ and _art_, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correctthe other examples, _four_ times over. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who iscareless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is theman whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greaterproficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think wasthere? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office ofhonor bestowed upon him. 

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place ofnouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence withthe noun which they represent. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Manywords they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so manyvictories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going aboutdoing good, they are continually doing evil. 

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should beomitted, according to Note 2. 

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should notbe used instead of _these_ and _those_. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them mentheir discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two personsdeserves most credit?

In all these examples, _those_ should be used in place of _them_. Theuse of the personal, _them_, in such constructions, presents twoobjectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which maybe avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connectsentences, joining two or more simple sentences into one compoundsentence: it sometimes connects only words; as, "Thou _and_ he arehappy, _because_ you are good. "

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences indifferent ways, mark the connexions and various dependances of humanthought. They belong to language only in its refined state. 

The term CONJUNCTION comes from the two Latin words, _con_, whichsignifies _together_, and _jungo_, to _join_. A conjunction, then, is aword that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you can fullycomprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisitethat you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, anda compound sentence, for conjunctions are chiefly used to connectsentences. 

A SENTENCE is an assemblage of words forming complete sense. 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verbwhich agrees with that nominative; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field. "

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides thenominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sentencecontaining many parts of speech; but, if it has only one nominative andone _finite_ verb, (that is, a verb _not_ in the infinitive mood, ) it isa simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is composed of two or more simple sentencesconnected together; as, "_Wheat grows_ in the field, and _men reap_ it. "

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentencesjoined together by the word _and_; which word, on account of itsconnecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentencewithout the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, "Wheatgrows in the field. Men reap it. "

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illustrated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wishto _add_ another, or several others, which are closely connected withit. We generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction: thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice _and_ cotton;" that is, "They cultivaterice _add_ cotton. " This sentence is compound, and without the use ofthe conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences:thus, "The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton. " Theconjunction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimesconnects only words; in which capacity it is nearly allied to thepreposition; as, "The sun _and (add)_ the planets constitute the solarsystem. " In this, which is a simple sentence, _and_ connects two_words_. 

A few more examples will illustrate the nature, and exhibit the use ofthis part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members of sentences, have norelation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions. Helabors harder--more successfully--I do. That man is healthy--he istemperate. By filling up the vacancies in these sentences withconjunctions, you will see the importance of this sort of words: thus, He labors harder _and_ more successfully _than_ I do. That man ishealthy _because_ he is temperate. 

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and Disjunctive. 

I. The Conjunction _Copulative_ serves to connect and continue asentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition, asupposition, or a cause; as, "Two _and_ three are five; I will go _if_he will accompany me; You are happy _because_ you are good. "

In the first of these examples, _and_ joins on a word that expresses an_addition_; in the second, _if_ connects a member that implies a_supposition_ or _condition_; and in the third, _because_ connects amember that expresses a _cause_. 

II. The Conjunction _Disjunctive_ serves to connect and continue asentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning;as, "They came with her, _but_ they went away without her. "

_But_ joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not onlysomething added, but, also, _opposition_ of meaning. 

The principal conjunctions, may be known by the following _lists_, whichyou may now commit to memory. Some words in these lists, are, however, frequently used as adverbs, and sometimes as prepositions; but if youstudy well the nature of all the different sorts of words, you cannot beat a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language. 

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

_Copulative_. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

_Disjunctive_. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to theformer; as, 1. _Though_--_yet_ or _nevertheless_; as, "_Though_ he was rich, _yet_for our sakes he became poor. "

2. _Whether_--_or_; as, "_Whether_ he will go, _or_ not, I cannot tell. "It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or _no_. "

3. _Either_--_or_; as, "I will _either_ send it, _or_ bring it myself. "

4. _Neither--nor_; as, "_Neither_ thou _nor_ I can comprehend it. "

5. _As_--_as_; as, "She is _as_ amiable _as_ her sister. "

6. _As_--_so_; as, "_As_ the stars, _so_ shall thy seed be. "

7. _So_--_as_; as, "To see thy glory, _so as_ I have seen thee in thesanctuary. "

8. _So_--_that_; as, "He became _so_ vain, _that_ everyone dislikedhim. "

 NOTES. 

 1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple _sentences_ only, and form them into compound _sentences_; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple _members_ only, so as to make them compound _members_; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c. , connect either whole sentences, or simple members. 

 2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences; as, "Blessed is the man _who_ feareth the Lord, _and_ keepeth his commandments. "

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or fivetimes over; and then, after committing the following order, you mayparse the subsequent exercises. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing a_ CONJUNCTION, is--a conjunction, andwhy?--copulative or disjunctive, and why?--what does it connect?

"Wisdom _and_ virtue _form_ the good man's character. " _And_ is aconjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences; but inthis example it connects only words--copulative, it serves to connectand continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses anaddition--it connects the words "wisdom and virtue. "

_Wisdom_ is a noun, the name of a thing--(You may parse it infull. )--_Wisdom_ is one of the nominatives to the verb "form. "

_Virtue_ is a noun, the name, &c. --(Parse it in full:)--and in the nom. Case to the verb "form, " and connected to the noun "wisdom" by and, according to RULE 33. _Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in thesame case_. 

_Form_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c. --of the thirdperson, _plural_, because its two nominatives, "wisdom and virtue, " areconnected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to RULE 8. _Two or morenouns in the singular number, joined by_ copulative _conjunctions, musthave verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with them in the_ plural. 

"Wisdom _or_ folly _governs_ us. " _Or_ is a conjunction, a word that ischiefly used to connect sentences: it sometimes connectswords--disjunctive, it serves not only to connect and continue thesentence, but also to join on a member which expresses opposition ofmeaning--it connects the nouns "wisdom and folly. "

_Governs_ is a verb, a word that signifies, &e. --of the third person, singular number, agreeing with "wisdom or folly, " according toRULE 9. _Two or more nouns singular, joined by_ disjunctive_conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with themin the_ singular:

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of me last two Rulespresented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. Forexample; in the sentence, "Orlando _and_ Thomas, _who study theirlessons, make_ rapid progress, " you notice that the two singular nouns, _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, are connected by the copulative conjunction_and_, therefore the verb _make_, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of _both_ its nominatives or actors. Andyou observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _their_, and the noun_lessons_, are _plural_, agreeing with the nouns _Orlando_ and _Thomas_, according to RULE 8. The verb _study_ is plural, agreeing with _who_, according to RULE 4. 

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction, and seehow the sentence will read: "Orlando _or_ Thomas, _who studies hislesson, makes_ rapid progress. " Now, you perceive, that a differentconstruction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, thatOrlando and Thomas, _both_ study and make rapid progress; but itasserts, that either the one _or_ the other studies, and makes rapidprogress. Hence the verb _makes_ is singular, because it expresses theaction of the one _or_ the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns _who_ and _his_, and the noun _lesson_, arelikewise in the singular, agreeing with Orlando _or_ Thomas, agreeablyto RULE 9. _Studies_ is also singular, agreeing with _who_, according toRULE 4. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The Sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey theirteacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mindhappy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness andinterest: they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prosperity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly asGreat Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions. 

NOTE. The verb _form_ is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, connected by copulative conjunctions, according to RULE 8. The verb_comfort_ agrees with _they_ for its nominative. It is connected to_support_ by the conjunction _and_, agreeably to RULE 34. _Angels_ isnom. To _are_ understood, and _Great Britain_ is nom. To _can boast_understood, according to RULE 35. 

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. 

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, anadverb, or a preposition. "I submitted, _for_ it was in vain to resist;"in this example, _for_ is a conjunction, because it connects the twomembers of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, andgoverns _victory_ in the objective case: "He contended _for_ victoryonly. "

In the first of the following sentences, _since_ is a conjunction; inthe second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb; "_Since_we must part, let us do it peaceably; I have not seen him _since_ thattime; Our friendship commenced long _since. _"

"He will repent _before_ he dies; Stand _before_ me; Why did you notreturn _before_" [that or this _time_;] in the first of these threeexamples, _before_ is an adverbial conjunction, because it expressestime and connects; and in the second and third, it is a preposition. 

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also itsmembers. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner maysometimes be at a loss to perceive the _connecting_ power of apreposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every conjunctionconnects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction, itsmembers are transposed; as, "_In_ the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha;" "_If_ thou seek the Lord, he will befound of thee; but, _if_ thou forsake him, he will cast thee off forever. "

 "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay, "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind?"

That the words _in, if_, and _when_, in these examples, connect themembers of the respective sentences to which they are attached, willobviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles _between_ the members which they connect:thus, "Elisha the prophet flourished _in_ the days of Joram, king ofIsrael;" "The Lord will be found of thee _if_ thou seek him; but he willcast thee off for ever _if_ thou forsake him:"

 "Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, "_When_ coldness wraps this suffering clay?"

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOTANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term conjunction derived?--What is asentence?--What is a simple sentence?--What is a compoundsentence?--Give examples. --In what respect do conjunctions andprepositions agree in their nature?--How many sorts of conjunctions arethere?--Repeat the lists of conjunctions. --Repeat some conjunctions withtheir corresponding conjunctions. --Do relative pronouns ever connectsentences?--Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. --Do you apply anyRule in parsing a conjunction?--What Rule should be applied in parsinga noun or pronoun connected with another?--What Rule in parsing a verbagreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copulativeconjunction?--What Rule when the nouns are connected by adisjunctive?--In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply?--Is a conjunction ever used as other parts ofspeech?--Give examples. --What is said of the words _for, since_, and_before?_--What is said of the transposition of sentences?

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 On scientific principles, our _connectives_, commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and verbs; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not perform the office of connectives. 

 "I wish you to believe, _that_ I would not wilfully hurt a fly. " Here, in the opinion of H. Tooke, our modern conjunction _that_, is merely a demonstrative adjective, in a disguised form; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution: "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe _that [assertion_. "] Now, if we admit, that _that_ is an adjective in the latter construction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both the mode of employing _that_, and its _inferential_ meaning, are changed. Moreover, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as a whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the latter, I assert, positively, that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly:" whereas, by the former, I merely _wish you to believe_ that "I would not wilfully hurt a fly;" but I do not _affirm_, that as a fact. 

 _That_ being the past part, of _thean_, to get, take, assume, by rendering it as a _participle_, instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive character. Thus, "I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe the _assumed [fact_ or _statement_;] or, the fact _assumed_ or _taken_. "

 _If_, (formerly written _gif, give, gin_, ) as previously stated, is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb _gifan_, to give. In imitation of Horne Tooke, some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb. Thus, "I will go, _if_ he will accompany me:"--"He will accompany me. _Grant_--_give_ that [fact] I will go. " For the purpose of ascertaining the _primitive_ meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a resolution; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of _if_ as it is applied in our modern, refined state of the language? I _trow_ not. But, admitting we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools? I presume it can not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed _if_ as a verb when they used the following circumlocution: "My son will reform. _Give that fact_. I will forgive him. " But in the present, improved state of our language, by using _if_ as a _conjunction_, (for I maintain that it is one, ) we express the same thought more briefly; and our modern mode of expression has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some people still make use of _gin_, a contraction of _given:_ thus, "I will pardon my son, _gin_ he reform. " But who will contend, that they speak pure English?

 But perhaps the advocates of what _they_ call a philosophical development of language, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely supply an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary, to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teaching grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes:--we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age. 

 _But_ comes from the Saxon verb, _beon-utan_, to be-out. "All were well _but (be-out, leave-out)_ the stranger. " "Man is _but_ a reed, floating on the current of time. " Resolution: "Man is a reed, floating on the current of time; _but (be-out_ this fact) he is not a stable being. "

 _And--aned, an'd, and_, is the past part. Of _ananad_, to add, join. _A, an, ane_, or _one_, from the same verb, points out whatever is _aned, oned_, or made _one. And_ also refers to the thing that is _joined_ to, _added_ to, or _made one_ with, some other person or thing mentioned. "Julius _and_ Harriet will make a happy pair. " Resolution: "Julius, Harriet _joined, united_, or _aned_, will make a happy pair;" i. E. Harriet _made one_ with Julius; will make a happy pair. 

 _For_ means _cause_. 

 _Because_--_be-cause_, is a compound of the verb _be_, and the noun _cause_. It retains the meaning of both; as, "I believe the maxim, _for_ I know it to be true;"--"I believe the maxim, _be-cause_ I know it to be true;" i. E. The _cause_ of my belief, _be_, or _is_, I know it to be true. 

 _Nor_ is a contraction of _ne or. Ne_ is a contraction of _not_, and _or_, of _other. Nor_ is, _not other_-wise: _not_ in the _other_ way or manner. 

 _Else_ is the imperative of _alesan, unless_, of _onlesan_, and _lest_, the past part. Of _lesan_, all signifying to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. "He will be punished, _unless_ he repent;"--"_Unless, release, give up_, (the fact) he repents he will be punished. " _Though_ is the imperative of the Saxon verb _thafigan_, to allow, and _yet_ of _getan_, to get. _Yet_ is simply, _get_; ancient _g_ is the modern _y_. "_Though_ he slay me, _yet_ will I trust in him:--_Grant_ or _allow_ (the fact) he slay me, _get_, or _retain_ (the opposite fact) I will trust in him. "

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctionsderived?--What is Horne Tooke's opinion of that?--From what is each ofthe following words derived, _that, if, but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though_, and _yet?_

LECTURE X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. --CASES OF NOUNS. 

INTERJECTIONS are words which express the sudden emotions of thespeaker; as, "_Alas!_ I fear for life;" "_O_ death! where is thy sting?"

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feeling. Almost any word may be used as an interjection; but when so employed, itis not the representative of a _distinct_, idea. A word which denotes adistinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some otherpart of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make_noises_, when they have no useful information to communicate, are aptto use words very freely in this way; such as the following expressions, _la, la me, my, O my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing_, and thelike. 

Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known bytheir taking an exclamation point after them. 

A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of _earnestness_ or _grief_; as, O! oh! ah! alas!2. _Contempt;_ as, Pish! tush!3. _Wonder;_ as, Heigh! really! strange!4. _Calling;_ as, Hem! ho! halloo!5. _Disgust_ or _aversion;_ as, Foh! fy! fudge! away!6. _Attention_; as, Lo! behold! hark!7. _Requesting silence_; as, Hush! hist!8. _Salutation_; as, Welcome! hail! all hail!

 NOTE. We frequently meet with what some call an _interjective phrase_; such as, Ungrateful wretch! impudence of hope! folly in the extreme! what ingratitude! away with him!

As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the Englishlanguage, it will require but little attention. You may, however, makeyourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and thencommit the

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

_The order of parsing an_ INTERJECTION, is--an interjection, andwhy?

 "O virtue! how amiable thou art!"

_O_ is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotionof the speaker. 

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated, althoughsome of them have not been fully explained. Before you proceed anyfarther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and readover, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in theexercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the followingexercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you studyfaithfully _six_ hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, youmay become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in _six weeks_; but if you study only _three_ hours in a day, it willtake you nearly _three months_ to acquire the same knowledge. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and promotes thehappiness of all around him. 

Modesty always appears graceful in youth: it doubles the lustre of everyvirtue which it seems to hide. 

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and followsout that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through thelabyrinth of the most busy life. 

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act;but, alas! I fear the consequence. 

 E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, I set me down a pensive hour to spend; And, placed on high, above the storm's career, Look downward where a hundred realms appear:-- Alas! the joys that fortune brings, Are trifling, and decay; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they. 

 NOTE. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, _which_ is governed by the verb _to hide_, according to RULE 16. _He_ is nom. To _carries; who_ is nom. To _plans. Follows_ agrees with _who_ understood, and is connected to _plans_ by _and_; RULE 34. What did the king give? A _reward to_ me. Then _reward_ is in the _obj_. Case, gov. By _gave_; RULE 20. _Me_ is gov. By _to_ understood; NOTE 1, RULE 32. The phrase, _committing that barbarous act_, is gov. By _for_; NOTE 2, under RULE 28. _Hour_ is in the _obj_. Case, gov. By _to spend_; RULE 20. _Look_ is connected to _set_ by _and_; RULE 34. _Joys_ is nom. To _are. That_ is gov. By _brings_; RULE 16. _Those_ is nom. To _are_ understood. _They_ is nom. To _are_ understood; RULE 35. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanationof the cases of nouns; and, as they are, in many situations, a littledifficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some remarks on thissubject. But before you proceed, I wish you to parse all the examples inthe exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention tothe remarks in the subjoined NOTE. Those remarks will assist you much inanalyzing. 

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after thenoun. You must exercise your judgment in this matter. Look at thesentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, "He who, everymorning, " &c. And see if you can find the verb to which _he_ isnominative. What does _he_ do? He carries on a thread, &c. _He_, then, is nominative to the verb _carries_. What does _who_ do? Who _plans_, and who _follows_, &c. Then _who_ is nom. To _plans_, and _who_understood, is nominative to _follows_. 

 "A soul without reflection, like a pile Without inhabitant, to ruin runs. "

In order to find the verb to which the noun _soul_, in this sentence, isthe nominative, put the question; What does a _soul_ without reflectiondo? Such, a soul _runs_ to ruin, like a pile without inhabitant. Thusyou discover, that _soul_ is nominative to _runs_. 

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their naturalorder, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective, after it; but when the words of a sentence aretransposed; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, itfrequently happens, that the nominative comes _after_, and theobjective, _before_ the verb; especially in poetry, or when a questionis asked: as, "Whence _arises_ the _misery_ of the present world?" "Whatgood _thing shall_ I _do_ to inherit eternal life?" Put theseexpressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will _precede_, and the objective _follow_ its verb: thus, "The _misery_ of the presentworld _arises_ whence; I _shall do_ what good _thing_ to inherit eternallife. "

 "Now came still _evening_ on, and twilight gray Had, in her sober livery, all _things_ clad. "

 "Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid _lore_ With patience many a _year_ she bore. "

What did the _evening_ do? The evening _came on_. Gray _twilight_ hadclad what? Twilight had clad all _things_ in her sober livery. _Evening_, then, is nom. To _came_, and the noun _things_ is in theobjective case, and gov. By _had clad_: RULE 20. What did _she_ bear?She bore thy rigid _lore_ with patience, _for_, or _during_, many ayear. Hence you find, that _lore_ is in the objective case, and governedby _bore_, according to RULE 20. _Year_ is gov. By _during_ understood:RULE 32. 

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in theobjective, and governed by a verb understood; as, "Lo, [_there is_] thepoor _Indian!_ whose untutored mind. " "O, the _pain_ [_there is!_] the_bliss_ [_there is_] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful_nightingale_ [_was not sunk_. "] "He thought as a _sage_ [_thinks_, ]though he felt as a _man_ [_feels_. "] "His hopes, immortal, blow themby, as _dust_ [_is blown by_. "] Rule 35 applies to these last threeexamples. 

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronounswhich have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronounmay be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken to, is inthe _nominative case independent_; as, "_James_, I desire you to study. "

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to _James_ thatis, I speak to him; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, eitherexpressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative; thereforeyou know that _James_ is in the nom. Case independent, according to Rule5. Recollect, that _whenever a noun is of the second person_, it is inthe nom. Case independent; that is, independent of any verb; as, _Selma_, thy halls are silent; Love and meekness, my _lord_, become achurchman, better than ambition; O _Jerusalem, Jerusalem_, how oftenwould I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth herchickens under her wings, but ye would not!--For a farther illustrationof this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax. 

 NOTE. When a pronoun of the _second_ person is in apposition with a noun independent, it is in the same case; as, "_Thou traitor_, I detest thee. "

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agreewith it, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "The _sun beingrisen_, we pursued our journey. "

_Sun_ is here placed before the participle "being risen, " and has noverb to agree with it; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, according to RULE 6. 

NOTE 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is alwaysof the _second_ person; but, in the case absolute, it is generally ofthe _third_ person. 

2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence istherefore incorrect; "Whose top shall tremble, _him_ descending, " &c. ;it should be, _he_ descending. 

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, areput, by _apposition_, in the same case; as, "_Cicero_, the great_orator, philosopher_, and _statesman_ of Rome, was murdered by Antony. "

_Apposition_, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or namesadded, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of thefirst name mentioned. 

You perceive that _Cicero_, in the preceding example, is merely theproper name of a man; but when I give him the three additionalappellations, and call him a great _orator, philosopher_, and_statesman_, you understand what kind of a man he was; that is, bygiving him these three additional names, his character and abilities asa man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss toknow that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are allnames given to the same person; therefore, if _Cicero_ was murdered, the_orator_ was murdered, and the _philosopher_ was murdered, and the_statesman_ was murdered, because they all mean one and the same person. 

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in_apposition_; as, He struck _Charles_ the _student_. Now it is obvious, that, when he struck _Charles_, he struck the _student_, because Charleswas the _student_, and the _student_ was _Charles_; therefore the noun_student_ is in the objective case, governed by "struck, " and put byapposition with Charles, according to RULE 7. 

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then beprepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically. 

PARSING. 

 "Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore. "

_Maid_ is a noun, the name of a person--- com. The name of a sort--fem. Gender, it denotes a female--second pers. Spoken to--sing. Num. Itimplies but one--and in the nominative case independent, because it isaddressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to

RULE 5. _When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is putin the nominative case independent_. 

 "The _general_ being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to depart. "

_General_ is a noun, the name, &c. (parse it in full:)--and in thenominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle"being ransomed, " and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to

RULE 6. _A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and beingindependent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative caseabsolute_. 

 _"Thou man_ of God, flee to the land of Judah. "

_Thou_ is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun--personal, itpersonates "man"--second pers. Spoken to--mas. Gender, sing. Num. Because the noun "man" is for which it stands; RULE 13 (Repeat theRule. )--_Thou_ is in the nominative case independent and put by_apposition_ with _man_, because it signifies the same thing, accordingto

RULE 7. _Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the samething, are put, by apposition, in the same case_. 

_Man_ is in the nominative case independent, according to Rule 5. _Flee_agrees with _thou_ understood. 

 "Lo! _Newton, priest_ of Nature, shines afar, Scans the wide world, and numbers every star. "

_Newton_ is a noun, (parse it in full, ) and in the nominative case to"shines. " RULE 3. 

_Priest_ is a noun, (parse it in full, ) and in the nom. Case, it is theactor and subject of the verb "shines, " and put by apposition with"Newton, " because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule. )

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

_Turn_ from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker'swondrous power. O king! _live_ for ever. The murmur of thy streams, OLora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rockwith its head of heath? Three aged pines bend from its face; green isthe plain at its feet; there the flower of the mountain grows, andshades its white head in the breeze. 

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus gotinto the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus hadconveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in greathaste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolledaway. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all thefrailties and inconveniences of human nature, sin excepted; (that is, sin being excepted. )

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. _Come_, peace of mind, delightfulguest! and _dwell_ with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, _lend_ me yourears. 

 Soul of the just, companion of the dead! Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled? Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour, There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower:-- The world was sad, the garden was a wild, And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. 

 NOTE. Those verbs in _italics_, in the preceding examples, are all in the imperative mood, and _second_ person, agreeing with _thou, ye_, or _you_, understood. _House of Israel_ is a noun of multitude. _Was routed_ and _must be done_ are passive verbs. _Art fled_ is a neuter verb in a passive form. _Clothed_ is a perfect participle. _Till_ is an adverbial conjunction. 

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in theforegoing exercises, you may answer the following

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Repeat the list of interjections. --Repeat some interjectivephrases. --Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. --In order tofind the verb to which a noun is nom. What question do you put?--Giveexamples. --Is the nominative case ever placed after theverb?--When?--Give examples. --Does the objective case ever come beforethe verb?--Give examples. --Is a noun ever nom. To a verbunderstood?--Give examples. --When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. Caseindependent?--Give examples. --Are nouns of the _second_ person always inthe nom. Case independent?--When a pronoun is put by apposition with anoun independent, in what case is it?--When is a noun or pronoun in thenom. Case absolute?--Give examples. --When are nouns or nouns andpronouns put, by apposition, in the same case?--Give examples. --Inparsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. Case independent, what Rule shouldbe applied?--In parsing the nom. Case absolute, what Rule?--What Rule inparsing nouns or pronouns in apposition?--Do real interjections belongto written language?--(_Phil. Notes_. )--From what are the followingwords derived, _pish, fy, lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu!_

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 The term INTERJECTION is applied to those _inarticulate_ sounds employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, passions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by words; but, as _written_ words are the ocular representatives of _articulate_ sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote _inarticulate_ or _indistinct noises_. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language; but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, _real_ interjections are not a part of written language. 

 The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily shown by tracing them to their roots. 

 _Pish_ and _pshaw_ are the Anglo-Saxon _paec, paeca_; and are equivalent to _trumpery_! i. E. _tromperie_, from _tromper_. 

 _Fy_ or _fie_ is the imperative, _foe_, the past tense, and _foh_ or _faugh_, the past part. Of the Saxon verb _fian_, to hate. _Lo_ is the imperative of _look. Halt_ is the imperative of _healden_, to hold. _Farewell--fare-well_, is a compound of _faran_, to go, and the adverb _well_. It means, to _go well. Welcome--well-come_, signifies, it is _well_ that you are _come. Adieu_ comes from the French _a Dieu_, to God; meaning, I commend you _to God_. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE XI. 

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an extensive, knowledgeof nine parts of speech; but you know but little, as yet, respecting themost important one of all; I mean the VERB. I will, therefore, commencethis lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses ofverbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read overLecture II. , and reflect well upon what is there said respecting theverb; after which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods andtenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding yourselfinvolved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find anobstruction to impede your progress. 

I. OF THE MOODS. 

The MOOD or MODE of a verb means the _manner_ in which its action, passion, or being, is represented. 

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the _declarative_ or_indicative_ mode; as, The man _walks_; but sometimes the action oroccurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must notdeclare it positively, but I must adopt another _mode_ of expression;thus, _If_ the man _walk_, he will refresh himself with the blandbreezes. This second mode or manner of representing the action, iscalled the _subjunctive_ or _conditional_ mode. 

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to _declare_ athing, nor to represent the action in a _doubtful_ or _conditional_manner; but we wish to _command_ some one to act. We then use the_imperative_ or _commanding_ mode, and say, _Walk_, sir. And when we donot wish to command a man to act, we sometimes allude to his _power_ or_ability_ to act. This fourth mode of representing action, is called the_potential_ mode; as, He _can walk_; He _could walk_. The fifth and lastmode, called the _infinitive_ or _unlimited_ mode, we employ inexpressing action in an unlimited manner; that is, without confining it, in respect to number and person, to any particular agent; as, _To walk, to ride_. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner ofrepresenting the action, passion, or being of a verb, must varyaccording to the different intentions of the mind. 

Were we to assign a particular name to _every_ change in the mode ormanner of representing action or being, the number of moods in ourlanguage would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of divisionand arrangement, if followed out in detail, would lead to greatperplexity, without producing any beneficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He hasfourteen moods; his _interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precautive, requisitive, enunciative_, &c. But as far as philosophicalaccuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I amnot unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it; but whatarrangement cannot be objected to?

There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, theImperative, the Potential, and the Infinitive. 

The INDICATIVE MOOD simply indicates or declares a thing; as, "He_writes_;" or it asks a question; as, "_Does_ he _write_? Who _wrote_that?"

The term _indicative_, comes from the Latin _indico_, to _declare_. Hence, the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to _declare_things, whether positively or negatively; thus, _positively_, He _came_with me; _negatively_, He _came not_ with me. But in order to avoid amultiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicativemood in asking a question; as, Who _came_ with you?

The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative inconjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. This mood, however, differs materially from the indicative in sense;therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature ofthe indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive. 

The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a doubtfulor conditional manner or, When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD; as, "_If_he _study_, he will improve; I will respect him, _though_ he _chide_ me;He will not be pardoned, _unless_ he _repent; _Had_ he _been_ there, hewould have conquered;" (that is, _if_ he _had been_ there. )

The conjunctions _if, though, unless_, in the preceding examples, express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore, the verbs _study, chide, repent_, and _had been_, are in the subjunctive mood. 

 NOTE 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in the potential. 

 2. Whenever the conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether, lest_, or any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that follow them are in the subjunctive mood; as, "_If_ he _ride_ out every day, his health will probably improve;" that is, if he _shall_ or _should_ ride out hereafter. But when these conjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. The verbs that follow them are in the indicative, or some other mood; as, "_Though_ he _rides_ out daily, his health is no better. " The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are explained in the conjugation of the verb to _love_. See page. 

The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used for commanding, exhorting, entreating, orpermitting; as, _"Depart_ thou; _Remember_ my admonitions; _Tarry_awhile longer; _Go_ in peace. "

The verb _depart_ expresses a command; _remember_ exhorts; _tarry_expresses entreaty; and _go_, permission; therefore they are all in theimperative mood. 

The _imperative_, from _impero_, to command, is literally that mood ofthe verb used in _commanding;_ but its technical meaning in grammar isextended to the use of the verb in exhorting, entreating, andpermitting. 

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, thoughnever varied in its terminations, agreeing with _thou, ye_, or _you_, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this mood by thesense; recollect, however, that the nominative is always _second_person, and frequently understood; as, George, _give_ me my hat; thatis, give thou, or give you. When the nominative is expressed, it isgenerally placed after the verb; as, Go _thou_; Depart _ye_; or betweenthe auxiliary and the verb; as, Do _thou_ go; Do _ye_ depart. (_Do_ isthe auxiliary. )

The POTENTIAL MOOD implies possibility, liberty, or necessity, power, will, or obligation; as, "It _may rain_; He _may go_ or _stay_; We _musteat_ and _drink_; I _can ride_; He _would walk_; They _should learn_. "

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary _may_ implies possibility;in the second it implies liberty; that is, he is at liberty to go or tostay; in the third, _must_ denotes necessity; _can_ denotes power orability; _would_ implies will or inclination; that is, he had a _mind_to walk; and _should_ implies obligation. Hence you perceive, that theverbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, can ride, world walk, andshould learn, are in the _potential_ mood. 

 NOTE 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingency, supposition, &c. , so a verb in the potential mood, may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive; as, "_If_ I _could deceive_ him, I should abhor it; _Though_ he _should increase_ in wealth, he would not be charitable. " I _could deceive_, is in the potential; _If_ I _could deceive_, is in the subjunctive mood. 

 2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a question; as, "May I go? Could you understand him? Must we die?"

The INFINITIVE MOOD expresses action, passion, or being, in a generaland unlimited manner, having no nominative, consequently, neither personnor number; as, _"To speak, to walk_. "

_Infinitive_ means _unconfined_, or _unlimited_. This mood is called theinfinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative. A verb in any other mood is limited; that is, it must agree in numberand person with its nominative; but a verb in this mood has _no_nominative, therefore, it never changes its termination, except to formthe perfect tense. Now you understand why all verbs are called _finite_or _limited_, excepting those in the infinitive mood. 

 NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the verb; as, "Let me proceed;" that is, Let me _to_ proceed. See RULE 25. _To_ is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood; thus, _to_ ride, _to_ rule; but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it. 

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that when Isay, I _write_, the verb is in the indicative mood; but when I say, _if_I write, or, _unless_ I write, &c. The verb is in the subjunctive mood;_write_ thou, or _write_ ye or you, the imperative; I _may write_, I_must write_, I _could write, &c. _ the potential; and _to write_, theinfinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in thesame manner. 

 * * * * *

II. OF THE TENSES. 

TENSE means time. 

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, thePluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses. 

The PRESENT TENSE represents an action or event as taking place at thetime in which it is mentioned; as, "I _smile_; I _see_; I _am seen_. "

 NOTE 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time; as, "He _rides_ out every morning. "

 2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead; as, "Seneca _reasons_ and _moralizes_ well; An honest man _is_ the noblest work of God. "

 3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, _when, before, after, as soon as_, &c. It is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action; as, "_When_ he _arrives_ we shall hear the news. "

The IMPERFECT TENSE denotes a past action or event, however distant;or, The IMPERFECT TENSE represents an action or event as past and finished, but without defining the precise time of its completion; as, "I _loved_her for her modesty and virtue; They _were_ travelling post when he_met_ them. "

In these examples, the verbs _loved_ and _met_ express past and_finished_ actions, and therefore constitute a _perfect_ tense asstrictly as any form of the verb in our language; but, as they do notdefine the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tensemay properly be denominated an _indefinite past_. By defining thepresent participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an _imperfect_tense in the expression, _were travelling_. This course, however, wouldnot be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating theparticiple. Hence it follows, that the terms _imperfect_ and _perfect_, as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogethersignificant of their true character; but if you learn to apply thesetenses _correctly_, the propriety or impropriety of their names is not aconsideration of very great moment. 

The PERFECT TENSE denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to thepresent; as, "I _have_ finished my letter. "

The verb _have finished_, in this example, signifies that the action, though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediatelypreceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the present. Under this view of the subject, the term _perfect_ may be properlyapplied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the completion of theaction, but, also, alludes to the particular period of itsaccomplishment. 

The PLUPERFECT TENSE represents a past action or event that transpiredbefore some other past time specified; as, "I _had finished_ my letterbefore my brother arrived. "

You observe that the verb _had finished_, in this example, representsone _past_ action, and the arrival of my brother, another _past_ action;therefore _had finished_ is in the pluperfect tense, because the actiontook place prior to the taking place of the other past action specifiedin the same sentence. 

The FIRST FUTURE TENSE denotes a future action or event; as "I _willfinish_; I _shall finish_ my letter. "

The SECOND FUTURE TENSE represents a future action that will be fullyaccomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event;as, "I _shall have finished_ my letter when my brother arrives. "

This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of thesecond future tense. The verb "shall have finished" implies a futureaction that will be completely finished, at or before the time of theother future event denoted by the phrase, "_when_ my brother _arrives_. "

 NOTE. What is sometimes called the _Inceptive_ future, is expressed thus, "I am going _to write_;" "I am about _to write_. " Future time is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately after the indicative present of the verb _to be_; thus, "I am _to write_;" "Harrison is _to be_, or ought _to be_, commander in chief;" "Harrison is _to command_ the army. "

You may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses severaltimes over, and then you may learn to _conjugate_ a verb. But, beforeyou proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you will please to commit thefollowing paragraph on the _Auxiliary_ verbs and, also, the _signs_ ofthe moods and tenses; and, in conjugating, you must pay particularattention to the manner in which these signs are applied. 

OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

AUXILIARY or HELPING VERBS are those by the help of which the Englishverbs are principally conjugated. _May, can, must, might, could, would, should, _ and _shall_, are always auxiliaries; _do, be, have_, and_will_, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs. 

The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation. 

SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

The _Indicative_ Mood is known by the _sense_, or by its having _nosign_, except in asking a question; as, "Who _loves_ you?"

The conjunctions _if, though, unless, except, whether_, and _lest_, aregenerally signs of the _Subjunctive_; as, "_If_ I _love; unless_ I_love_, " &c. 

A verb is generally known to be in, the _Imperative_ Mood by itsagreeing with _thou_, or _ye_ or _you_, understood; as, _"Love_ virtue, _and follow_ her steps;" that is, love _thou_, or love _ye_ or _you_;follow _thou_, &c. 

_May, can_, and _must, might, could, would_, and _should_, are signs ofthe _Potential_ Mood; as, "I _may_ love; I _must_ love; I _should_love, " &c. 

_To_ is the sign of the _Infinitive_; as, "_To_ love, _to_ smile, _to_hate, _to_ walk. "

SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 

The first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense; as, _love, smile, hate, walk_. 

_Ed_--the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, _loved, smiled, hated, walked_. 

_Have_--the perfect; as, _have_ loved. 

_Had_--the pluperfect; as, _had_ loved. _Shall_ or _will_--the firstfuture; as, _shall_ love, or _will_ love; _shall_ smile, _will_ smile. 

_Shall_ or _will have_--the second future; as, _shall have_ loved, or_will have_ loved. 

 NOTE. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. 

Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage, as tocommit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceedfarther than to the subjunctive mood. If you do, the supposed Herculeantask of learning to conjugate verbs, will be transformed into a fewhours of pleasant pastime. 

The Indicative Mood has _six_ tenses. The Subjunctive has also _six_ tenses. The Imperative has only _one_ tense. The Potential has _four_ tenses. The Infinitive has _two_ tenses. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement ofits several numbers, persons, moods, and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the _active voice_; andthat of a passive verb, the _passive voice_. 

Verbs are called Regular when they form their imperfect tense of theindicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the presenttense _ed_, or _d_ only when the verb ends in _e_; as, Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. ParticipleI favor. I favor_ed_. Favor_ed_. I love. I love_d_, love_d_. 

A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner. 

TO LOVE. --INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. _Pers_. I love, 1. We love, 2. _Pers_. Thou lovest, 2. Ye _or_ you love, 3. _Pers_. He, she, _or_ it, loveth 3. They love. _or_ loves. 

When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary _do_should precede the verb in the present tense: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I do love, 1. We do love, 2. Thou dost love, 2. Ye _or_ you do love, 3. He doth _or_ does love. 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, 2. Thou lovedst, 2. Ye _or_ you loved, 3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Or by-prefixing _did_ to the present: thus, _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I did love 1. We did love, 2. Thou didst love, 2. Ye _or_ you did love, 3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

Perfect Tense. 

 _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 2. Thou hast loved, 2. Ye _or_ you have loved, 3. He hath _or_ has loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye _or_ you had loved, 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall _or_ will love, 1. We shall _or_ will love, 2. Thou shalt _or_ wilt love, 2. Ye _or_ you shall _or_ will love, 3. He shall _or_ will love, 3. They shall _or_ will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye _or_ you will have loved, 3. He will have loved, 3. They will have loved. 

 NOTE. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called _simple_ tenses; as, I _love;_ I _loved;_ but those formed by the help of auxiliaries, are denominated _compound_ tenses; as, I _have loved;_ I _had loved_, &c. 

This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, theapplication of the _signs_ of the _tenses_, which signs ought to beperfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. By lookingagain at the conjugation, you will notice, that _have_, placed beforethe perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect tense; _had_, thepluperfect; _shall_ or _will_, the first future, and so on. 

Now speak each of the verbs, _love, hate, walk, smile, rule_, and_conquer_, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with thepronoun _I_ before it; thus, indicative mood, pres. Tense, first pers. Sing. I love; imperf. I loved; perf. I have loved; and so on, throughall the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb inthe indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in conjugating itthrough those that follow, for in the conjugation through all the moods, there is a great similarity. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, or elliptical future. --_Conjunctive form_. 

 _Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If thou love, 2. If ye _or_ you love, 3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and you willobserve, that the form of the verb differs from this form in thesubjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, does not varyits termination on account of number or person. This is called the_conjunctive_ form of the verb; but sometimes the verb in thesubjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the same manner as itis in the indicative, with this exception, _if, though, unless_, or someother conjunction, is prefixed; as, _Indicative form_. 

_Singular_. _Plural_. 1. If I love, 1. If we love, 2. If thou lovest, 2. If ye _or_ you love, 3. If he loves, 3. If they love. 

The following general rule will direct you when to use the _conjunctive_form of the verb, and when the _indicative_. When a verb in thesubjunctive mood, present tense, has a _future_ signification, or areference to _future_ time, the conjunctive form should be used; as, "Ifthou _prosper_, thou shouldst be thankful;" "He will maintain hisprinciples, though he _lose_ his estate;" that is, If thou _shalt_ or_shouldst_ prosper; though he _shall_ or _should_ lose, &c. But when averb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has _no_ reference tofuture time, the indicative form ought to be used; as, "Unless he_means_ what he says, he is doubly faithless. " By this you perceive, that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has afuture signification, an _auxiliary_ is always understood before it, forwhich reason, in this construction, the termination of the principalverb never varies; us, "He will not become eminent, unless he _exert_himself;" that is, unless he _shall_ exert, or _should_ exert himself. This tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the _ellipticalfuture_. 

The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future tensesof this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the same tenses ofthe indicative, with this exception; in the subjunctive mood, aconjunction implying doubt, &c. Is prefixed to the verb. In the secondfuture tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus:

Second Future Tense. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural_. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 2. If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 3. If he shall have loved. 3. If they shall have loved. 

Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will readilyperceive the distinction between the two conjugations. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

_Singular. _ _Plural_. 2. Love, _or_ love thou, _or_ do 2. Love, _or_ love ye _or_ you, _or_ thou love. Do ye _or_ you love. 

 NOTE. We cannot command, exhort, &c. Either in _past_ or _future_ time; therefore a verb in this mood is always in the _present_ tense. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural_. 

1. I may, can, _or_ must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, 2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must 2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ love, must love, 3. He may, can, _or_ must love. 3. They may, can, _or_ must love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

_Singular. _ _Plural_. 

1. I might, could, would, _or_ 1. We might, could, would, _or_ should love, should love, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye _or_ you might, could, wouldst, _or_ shouldst love, would, _or_ should love, 3. He might, could, would, _or_ 3. They might, could, would, should love, _or_ should love. 

Perfect Tense. 

_Singular. _ _Plural_. 

1. I may, can, _or_ must have 1. We may, can, _or_ must have loved, loved, 2. Thou mayst, canst, _or_ must 2. Ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ have loved, must have loved, 3. He may, can, _or_ must 3. They may, can, _or_ must have loved. Have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

_Singular. _ _Plural_. 

1. I might, could, would, 1. We might, could, would, _or_ should have loved, _or_ should have loved, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye _or_ you might, could, _or_ shouldst have loved, would, _or_ should have loved, 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, _or_ should have loved, _or_ should have loved. 

By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood, you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that whenever any ofthe auxiliaries, _may, can_, or _must_, is placed before a verb, thatverb is in the potential mood, _present_ tense; _might, could, would_, or _should_, renders it in the potential mood, _imperfect_ tense; _may, can_, or _must have_, the _perfect_ tense; and _might, could, would_, or_should have_, the _pluperfect_ tense. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present _or_ imperfect, Loving. Perfect _or_ passive, Loved. Compound, Having loved. 

 NOTE. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense; yet the former may, at all times, be distinguished from the latter, by the following rule: In composition, the imperfect tense of a verb _always_ has a nominative, either expressed or implied: the perfect participle _never_ has. 

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall havelearned to conjugate the verb _to love_, you will be able to conjugateall the regular verbs in the English language, for they are allconjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the followingdirection, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the verb _love_ through all the moods and tenses, in the firstperson singular, with the pronoun _I_ before it, and speak theParticiples: thus, Indicative mood, pres. Tense, first pers. Sing. I_love_, imperf. Tense, I _loved_; perf. Tense, I _have loved_; and soon, through every mood and tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. Sing, with the pronoun _thou_ before it, through all the moods andtenses; thus, Indic. Mood, pres. Tense, second pers. Sing, thou_lovest_; imperf. Tense, thou _lovedst_; and so on, through the whole. After that, conjugate it in the third pers. Sing, with _he_ before it;and then in the first pers. Plural, with _we_ before it, in like mannerthrough all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may, at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust youwill not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseverance, induces me to recommend any course which I know will tend to facilitateyour progress. 

When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate thefollowing verbs in the same manner; which will enable you, hereafter, totell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation: _walk, hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate, melt, shun, fail_. 

 * * * * *

 PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

 The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been formed by the _coalescence_ of words of appropriate meaning. This subject was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the purpose of showing, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number and person, of English verbs, do not solely depend on inflection. 

 The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the Hebrew verb, are still considered pronouns; and, by those who have investigated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has been adopted in the formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in the Hebrew. Some languages have carried this process to a very great extent. Ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections. But they who reject the passive verb, and those moods and tenses which are formed by employing what are called "auxiliary verbs, " _because they are formed of two or more verbs_, do not appear to reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that walk-_eth_, and walk-_ed_, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject _have_ walked, and _will_ walk, as tenses, because each is composed of two words. _Eth_, as previously shown, is a contraction of _doeth_, or _haveth_, and _ed_, of _dede, dodo, doed_, or _did_; and, therefore, walk-_eth_; i. E. Walk-_doeth_, or _doeth_-walk, and walk-_ed_; i. E. Walk-_did_, or _doed_ or _did_-walk, are, when analyzed, as strictly compound, as _will_ walk, _shall_ walk, and _have_ walked. The only difference in the formation of these tenses, is, that in the two former, the associated verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in the two latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words. 

 If it be said that _will walk_ is composed of two words, each of which conveys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be analyzed by itself, the same argument with all its force, may be applied to walk-_eth_, walk-_ed_, walk-_did_, or _did_ walk. The result of all the investigations of this subject, appears to settle down into the hackneyed truism, that the passive verbs, and the moods and tenses, of some languages, are formed by inflections, or terminations either prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been contracted and made to coalesce as _terminations_. The auxiliary, when contracted into a _terminating syllable, _ retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning, as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition: consequently, an "auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a _terminating syllable_. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxiliaries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife _to every compound word in the language_. 

 Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, formed by the aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to show that this theory, and this _only_, will subserve the purposes of the practical grammarian. 

 As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences, and as those _combinations_ which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs, are necessary in writing and discourse, it follows, conclusively, that that theory which does not explain these verbs in their _combined_ state, cannot teach the student the correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By such an arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases, _shall have walked, might have gone, have seen_, instead of, _shall walk, might go_, and _saw_; because this theory has nothing to do with the combining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs, and, therefore, that the directions of the grammarian are unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument would bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In short, the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb, appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so practically important to the student, as to defy all the engines of the paralogistic speculator, and the philosophical quibbler, to batter it down. 

 But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, which are avoided by the _simple_ process of exploding the passive verb, and reducing the number of the moods to three, and of the tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if we reject the _names_ of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the _names_ of the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing and discourse we must still employ those _verbal combinations_ which form them; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of employing such combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the old theory, which _names_ them, as by the new, which gives them _no name_. 

 On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the _future_ tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately; but, as illustrated on page 79, the combined words which form our perfect and pluperfect tenses have an _associated_ meaning, which is destroyed by analyzing each word separately. That arrangement, therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to be, not only _unphilosophical_, but inconsistent and inaccurate. 

 For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adoption, too, a modernized _philosophical_ theory of the moods and tenses is here presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being _new_; and, moreover, it sounds _large_, and will make the _commonalty stare_. Let it be distinctly understood, that you teach _"philosophical grammar, founded on reason and common sense_, " and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and the vast improvements of the age. 

 MOOD. 

 Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly included under the _indicative_, the _subjunctive_, and the _potential_, ) the imperative, and the infinitive. --For definitions, refer to the body of the work. 

 TENSE OR TIME. 

 Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. A verb expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the present tense; as, "Religion _soars_: it _has_ gained many victories: it _will_ [to] _carry_ its votaries to the blissful regions. "

 When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense; as, "This page (the Bible) God _hung_ out of heaven, and _retired_. "

 A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the _present_ tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The _command_ must _necessarily_ be given in time present, although its _fulfilment_ must be future. John, what are you doing? Learning my task. Why do you learn it? Because my preceptor _commanded_ me to do so. When _did_ he command you? _Yesterday_. --Not _now_, of course. 

 That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be given in _future_ time, and that the _fulfilment_ of the command, though future, has nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with that of the command. 

 * * * * *

 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

 You _may read_ the book which I _have printed_. _May_, an irregular active verb, signifying "to have and to exercise might or strength, " indic. Mood, pres. Tense, second pers. Plur. Agreeing with its nom. _you. Read_, an irregular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. Tense, with the sign _to_ understood, referring to _you_ as its agent. _Have_, an active verb, signifying to _possess_, indic. Present, and having for its object, book understood after "which. " _Printed_, a perf. Participle, referring to book understood. 

 Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, _would have been laughed at, had_ they _essayed_ to _thrust_ any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries. 

 _Would_, an active verb, signifying "to exercise volition, " in the past tense of the indicative. _Have_, a verb, in the infinitive, _to_ understood. _Been_, a perfect part. Of to _be_, referring to Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. _Laughed at_, perf. Part, of to _laugh at_, referring to the same as _been. Had_, active verb, in the past tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. _they. Essayed_, perf. Part, referring to they. Call this "_philosophical_ parsing, on reasoning principles, according to the original laws of nature and of thought, " and the _pill_ will be swallowed, by pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE XII. 

OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are those that do not formtheir imperfect tense and perfect participle by theaddition of _d_ or _ed_ to the present tense; as, _Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. Or Pass. Part. _I write I wrote writtenI begin I began begunI go I went gone

The following is a list of the _irregular_ verbs. Those marked with an Rare sometimes conjugated _regularly_. 

_Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perf. Or Pass. Part. _Abide abode abodeAm was beenArise arose arisenAwake awoke, R. AwakedBear, _to bring forth_ bare bornBear, _to carry_ bore borneBeat beat beaten, beatBegin began begunBend bent bentBereave bereft, R. Bereft, R. Beseech besought besoughtBid bade, bid bidden, bidBind bound boundBite bit bitten, bitBleed bled bledBlow blew blownBreak broke brokenBreed bred bredBring brought broughtBuild built builtBurst burst, R. Burst, R. Buy bought boughtCast cast castCatch caught, R. Caught, R. Chide chid chidden, chidChoose chose chosenCleave, _to adhere_ clave, R. CleavedCleave, _to split_ cleft cleft, _or_ clove clovenCling clung clungClothe clothed clad, R. Come came comeCost cost costCrow crew, R. CrowedCreep crept creptCut cut cutDare, _to venture_ durst daredDare, _to challenge_ REGULARDeal dealt, R. Dealt, R. Dig dug, R. Dug, R. Do did doneDraw drew drawnDrive drove drivenDrink drank drunk, drank[6]Dwell dwelt, R. Dwelt, R. Eat eat, ate eatenFall fell fallenFeed fed fedFeel felt feltFight fought foughtFind found foundFlee fled fledFling flung flungFly flew flownForget forgot forgottenForsake forsook forsakenFreeze froze frozenGet got got[7]Gild gilt, R. Gilt, R. Gird girt, R. Girt, R. Give gave givenGo went goneGrave graved graven, R. Grind ground groundGrow grew grownHave had hadHang hung, R. Hung, R. Hear heard heardHew hewed hewn, R. Hide hid hidden, hidHit hit hitHold held heldHurt hurt hurtKeep kept keptKnit knit, R. Knit, R. Know knew knownLade laded ladenLay laid laidLead led ledLeave left leftLend lent lentLet let letLie, _to lie down_ lay lainLoad loaded laden, R. Lose lost lostMake made madeMeet met metMow mowed mown, R. Pay paid paidPut put putRead read readRend rent rentRid rid ridRide rode rode, ridden[8]Ring rung, rang rungRise rose risenRive rived rivenRun ran runSaw sawed sawn, R. Say said saidSee saw seenSeek sought soughtSell sold soldSend sent sentSet set setShake shook shakenShape shaped shaped, shapenShave shaved shaven, R. Shear sheared shornShed shed shedShine shone, R. Shone, R. Show showed shownShoe shod shodShoot shot shotShrink shrunk shrunkShred shred shredShut shut shutSing sung, sang[9] sungSink sunk, sank[9] sunkSit sat setSlay slew slainSleep slept sleptSlide slid sliddenSling slung slungSlink slunk slunkSlit slit, R. SlitSmite smote smittenSow sowed sown, R. Speak spoke spokenSpeed sped spedSpend spent spentSpill spilt, R. Spilt, R. Spin spun spunSpit spit, spat spit, spitten [10]Split split splitSpread spread spreadSpring sprung, sprang sprungStand stood stoodSteal stole stolenStick stuck stuckSting stung stungStink stunk stunkStride strode, strid striddenStrike struck struck _or_ strickenString strung strungStrive strove strivenStrow strowed strown, _or_ _or_ strowed _or_strew strewed strewedSweat swet, R. Swet, R. Swear swore swornSwell swelled swollen, R. Swim swum, swam swumSwing swung swungTake took takenTeach taught taughtTear tore tornTell told toldThink thought thoughtThrive throve, R. ThrivenThrow threw thrownThrust thrust thrustTread trod troddenWax waxed waxen, R. Wear wore wornWeave wove wovenWet wet wet, R. Weep wept weptWin won wonWind wound woundWork wrought, wrought, worked workedWring wrung wrungWrite wrote written

[6] The men were drunk; i. E. Inebriated. The toasts were drank. 

[7] Gotten is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgotten, is still ingood use. 

[8] Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

[9] Sang and sank should not be used in familiar style. 

[10] Spitten is nearly obsolete. 

In familiar writing and discourse, the following, and some other verbs, are often improperly terminated by _t_ instead of _ed_; as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, stopt, latcht. " They should be, "learned, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched. "

You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a manner similarto the conjugation of regular verbs: _arise, begin, bind, do, go, grow, run, lend, teach, write_. Thus, to _arise_--Indicative mood, pres. Tense, first person, sing. I arise; imperf. Tense, I arose; perf. Tense, I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses ofeach mood; and then speak the participles: thus, pres. Arising, perf. Arisen, comp. Having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verbin the second person sing. Through all the moods and tenses; and then inthe third person sing. And in the first pers. Plural. After that, youmay proceed in the same manner with the words _begin, bind_, &c. 

Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures _four_ or _five_ times over, and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared toparse the following verbs in full; and I presume, all the other parts ofspeech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium fordefinitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without, I will nowparse a verb, and describe all its properties by applying thedefinitions and rules according to the systematic order. 

 "We _could_ not _accomplish_ the business. "

_Could accomplish_ is a verb, a word which signifies to do--active, itexpresses action--transitive, the action passes over from the nom. "we"to the object "business"--regular, it will form its imperfect tense ofthe indic. Mood and perf. Part, in _ed_--potential mood, it impliespossibility or power--imperfect tense, it denotes past time howeverdistant--first pers. Plural, because the nom. "we" is with which itagrees, agreeably to RULE 4. _A verb must agree_, &c. Conjugated--Indic. Mood, present tense, first pers. Sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, Iaccomplished; perfect, I have accomplished; pluperfect, I hadaccomplished; and so on. --Speak it in the person of each tense throughall the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

_These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses_. 

I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson badly. John, do you write a good hand? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, butthey did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman to whom I gave thebook? He has gone. They had received the news before the messengerarrived. When will those persons return? My friend shall receive hisreward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. 

If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he doesnot improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work, bymidsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unlessyou wish to injure yourself. Remember what is told you. The physicianmay administer the medicine, but Providence only can bless it. I told, him that he might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, had he conducted himself properly; (that is, _if he had conducted_, &c. )Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear yourepeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whatever task may beallotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us considerhow little we deserve. To die for one's country, is glorious. How can webecome wise? To seek God is wisdom. What is true greatness? Activebenevolence. A good man is a great man. 

 NOTE 1. _Man_, following _great_, and _what_, in the last two examples, are nom. After _is_: RULE 21. _To seek God_, and _to die for one's country_, are members of sentences, each put as the nom. Case to _is_ respectively: RULE 24. The verb _to correct_ is the infinitive mood absolute: NOTE under RULE 23. _May be allotted_ is a passive verb, agreeing with _which_, the relative part of _whatever. That_, the first part of whatever, is an adj. Pronoun, agreeing with _task_; and _task_ is governed by _study. _ _Hear_, following _let_, and _repeat_, following _hear_, are in the infinitive mood without the sign _to_, according to RULE 25. _To recite_ is governed by _prepare_: RULE 23. _Is told_, is a passive verb, agreeing with _which_, the relative part of _whatever_; and _you_, following, is governed by _to_ understood: NOTE 1, under RULE 32. 

 2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not expressed, you must say it represents some person or thing understood. 

LECTURE XIII. 

OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

I. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the AuxiliaryVerbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them inLecture XI. Page 140. The short account there given, and theirapplication in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiarto you; and you have undoubtedly observed, that, without their help, wecannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present andimperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present ofthe imperative and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, they are brought into requisition. 

Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation; that is, theyare used only in some of the moods and tenses; and when unconnected withprincipal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner:

MAY. Pres. Tense _Sing_. I may, thou mayst, he may. _Plur_. We may, ye _or_ you may, they may. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I might, thou mightst, he might. Tense. _Plur_. We might, ye _or_ you might, they might. 

CAN. Pres. _Sing_. I can, thou canst, he can. Tense. _Plur_. We can, ye _or_ you can, they can. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I could, thou couldst, he could. Tense. _Plur_. We could, ye _or_ you could, they could. 

WILL. Pres. _Sing_. I will, thou wilt, he will. Tense. _Plur_. We will, ye _or_ you will, they will. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I would, thou wouldst, he would. Tense. _Plur_. We would, ye _or_ you would, they would. 

SHALL. Pres. _Sing_. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. Tense. _Plur_. We shall, ye _or_ you shall, they shall. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I should, thou shouldst, he should. Tense. _Plur_. We should, ye _or_ you should, they should. 

TO DO. Pres. _Sing_. I do, thou dost _or_ doest, he doth _or_ does. Tense. _Plur_. We do, ye _or_ you do, they do. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I did, thou didst, he did. Tense. _Plur_. We did, ye _or_ you did, they did. _Participles_. Pres. Doing. Perf. Done. 

TO BE. Pres. _Sing_. I am, thou art, he is. Tense. _Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was. Tense. _Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were. _Participles_. Pres. Being. Perf. Been. 

TO HAVE. Pres. _Sing_. I have, thou hast, he hath _or_ has. Tense. _Plur_. We have, ye _or_ you have, they have. 

Imperf. _Sing_. I had, thou hadst, he had. Tense. _Plur_. We had, ye _or_ you had, they had. _Participles_. Pres. Having. Perf. Had. 

_Do, be, have_, and _will_, are sometimes used as principal verbs; andwhen employed as such, _do, be_, and _have_, may be conjugated, by thehelp of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses. 

DO. The different tenses of _do_, in the several moods, are thus formed:Indicative mood, pres. Tense, first pers. Sing. I do; imperfect tense, Idid; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall orwill do; sec. Fut. I shall have done. Subjunctive mood, pres. Tense, IfI do; imperf. If I did; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, pres. I may, can, or must do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. Tohave done. Participles, pres. Doing; perf. Done; compound, having done. 

HAVE. _Have_ is in great demand. No verb can be conjugated through allthe moods and tenses without it. _Have_, when used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary toitself; thus, Indic. Mood, pres. Tense, first pers. Sing. I have;imperf. Tense, I had; perf. I have had; pluperf. I had had; first fut. Ishall or will have; sec. Fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, ifI have; imperf. If I had; perf. If I have had; pluperf. If I had had;first fut. If I shall or will have; sec. Fut. If I shall have had. Imper. Mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have;imperf. I might, could, would, or should have; perf. I may, can, or musthave had; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. Infinitive, present, to have; perf. To have had. Participles, pres. Having; perf. Had; compound, having had. 

BE. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of theirregular, neuter verb, _Be_, which is an auxiliary whenever it isplaced before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every othersituation, it is a _principal_ verb. 

TO BE. --INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. _Sing_. I am, thou art, he, she, _or_ it is. _Plur_. We are, ye _or_ you are, they are. 

Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. I was, thou wast, he was. _Plur_. We were, ye _or_ you were, they were. 

Perf. Tense. _Sing_. I have been, thou hast been, he hath _or_ has been. _Plur_. We have been, ye _or_ you have been, they have been. 

Plup. Tense. _Sing_. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. _Plur_. We had been, ye _or_ you had been, they had been. 

First Fut. T. _Sing_, I shall _or_ will be, thou shalt _or_ wilt be, he shall _or_ will be. _Plur_. We shall _or_ will be, you shall _or_ will be, they shall _or_ will be. 

Second Fut. T. _Sing_. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. _Plur_. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. _Sing_. If I be, if thou be, if he be. _Plur_. If we be, if ye _or_ you be, if they be. 

Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. If I were, if thou wert, if he were. _Plur_. If we were, if ye _or_ you were, if they were. 

The neuter verb to _be_, and all passive verbs, have two forms in theimperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present; therefore, thefollowing rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form. When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c. And the neuter verb_be_, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or futuretime, and is either followed or preceded by another verb in theimperfect of the potential mood, the _conjunctive_ form of the imperfecttense must be employed; as, "_If_ he _were_ here, we _should_ rejoicetogether;" "She _might_ go, _were_ she so disposed. " But when there isno reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followednor preceded by another in the potential imperfect, the _indicative_form of the imperfect tense must be used; as, "_If_ he _was_ ill, he didnot make it known;" "_Whether_ he _was_ absent or present, is a matterof no consequence. " The general rule for using the conjunctive form ofthe verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135. 

The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctivemood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses ofthe indicative. The second future is conjugated thus:

Second Fut. T. _Sing_. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall. &c_Plur_. If we shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. _Sing_. Be, _or_ be thou, _or_ do thou be. _Plur_. Be, _or_ be ye _or_ you, or do ye _or_ you be. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. Pres. Tense_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must be, he may, can, _or_ must be. _Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be, ye _or_ you may, can, _or_ must be, they may, can, _or_ must be. Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be, thou mightest, &c. _Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should be, you might, &c. 

Perf. Tense_Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c. _Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been, you may, can, _or_ must be, &c. 

Pluper. Tense. _Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been, thou, &c. _Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been, you, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been. 

This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far themost important verb in our language, for it is more frequently used thanany other; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated withit, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you proceed any farther. 

 * * * * *

II. PASSIVE VERBS. 

The _cases of nouns_ are a fruitful theme for investigation anddiscussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject hasfrequently engaged our attention; and, now, in introducing to yournotice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both interesting andprofitable to present one more view of the nominative case. 

Every sentence, you recollect, must have one _finite_ verb, or more thanone, and one _nominative_, either expressed or implied, for, withoutthem, no sentence can exist. 

The _nominative_ is the _actor_ or _subject_ concerning which the verbmakes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nominatives, _active, passive_, and _neuter_. 

The nominative to an _active_ verb, is _active_, because it _produces_an action, and the nominative to a _passive_ verb, is _passive_, becauseit _receives_ or _endures_ the action expressed by the verb; for, A Passive Verb denotes action _received_ or _endured_ by the person orthing which is the nominative; as, "The _boy is beaten_ by his father. "

You perceive, that the nominative _boy_, in this example, is notrepresented as the _actor_, but as the _object_ of the action expressedby the verb _is beaten_; that is, the boy _receives_ or _endures_ theaction performed by his father; therefore _boy_ is a _passive_nominative. And you observe, too, that the verb _is beaten_, denotes the_action_ received or endured by the nominative; therefore _is beaten_ isa _passive_ verb. 

If I say, John _kicked_ the horse, John is an active nominative, becausehe performed or produced the action; but if I say, John _was kicked_ bythe horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or enduredthe action. 

The nominative to a _neuter_ verb, is _neuter_, because it does notproduce an action nor receive one; as, John _sits_ in the chair. John ishere connected with the neuter verb _sits_, which expresses simply thestate of being of its nominative, therefore _John_ is a neuternominative. 

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by afew examples. 

I. Of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ beats the dog; The _lady_sings; The _ball_ rolls; The _man_ walks. "

II. Of PASSIVE NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ is beaten; The _lady_ isloved; The _ball_ is rolled; The _man_ was killed. "

III. Of NEUTER NOMINATIVES; as, "The _boy_ remains idle; The _lady_ isbeautiful; The _ball_ lies on the ground; The _man_ lives in town. "You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. 

Passive Verbs are called _regular_ when they end in _ed_; as, was_loved_; was _conquered_. 

All Passive Verbs _are formed_ by adding the _perfect participle_ of anactive-transitive verb, to the neuter verb _to be_. 

If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb afterthis neuter verb _be_, in any mood or tense, you will have a _passive_verb in the same mood and tense that the verb _be_ would be in if theparticiple were not used; as, I am _slighted_; I was _slighted_; he willbe _slighted_; If I be _slighted_; I may, can, _or_ must be _slighted_, &c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugationof the verb _be_, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in theEnglish language. 

The regular passive verb to _be loved_, which is formed by adding theperfect participle _loved_ to the neuter verb to _be_, is conjugated inthe following manner:

TO BE LOVED. --INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense_Sing_. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. _Plur_. We are loved, ye _or_ you are loved, they are loved. 

Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. I was loved, thou wast loved, he was loved. _Plur_. We were loved, ye _or_ you were loved, they were loved. 

Perfect Tense. _Sing_. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. _Plur_. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. 

Pluper. Tense_Sing_. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c. _Plur_. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c. 

First Future. _Sing_. I shall _or_ will be loved, thou shall _or_ wilt be loved, he, &c. _Plur_. We shall _or_ will be loved, you shall _or_ will be loved, they, &c. 

First Future. _Sing_. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been loved, he, &c. _Plur_. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense_Sing_. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. _Plur_. If we be loved, if ye _or_ you be loved, if they be loved. 

Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. _Plur_. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. 

This mood has six tenses:--See conjugation of the verb to _be_. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. _Sing_. Be thou loved, _or_ do thou be loved. _Plur_. Be ye _or_ you loved, _or_ do ye be loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. Pres. Tense. _Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must be loved, thou mayst, canst, _or_ must, &c. _Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must be loved, you may, can, _or_ must, &c. 

Imperf. Tense. _Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should be loved, thou mightst, &c. _Plur_. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye _or_ you, &c. 

Perfect Tense. _Sing_. I may, can, _or_ must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c. _Plur_. We may, can, _or_ must have been loved, you may, can, &c. 

Plup. Tense. _Sing_. I might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, thoumightst, couldst, wouldst, _or_ shouldst have_Plur_. We might, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, youmight, could, would, _or_ should have been loved, they, &c. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. Present, Being loved. Perfect _or_ Passive, Loved. Compound, Having been loved. 

 NOTE. This conjugation of the passive verb _to be loved_, is called the _passive, voice_ of the regular active-transitive verb _to love_. 

Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak them in thefirst pers. Sing, and plur. Of each tense, through all the moods, andspeak the participles; "to be loved, to be rejected, to be slighted, tobe conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be sought, to be taken. "

 NOTE 1. When the perfect participle of an _intransitive_ verb is joined to the neuter verb _to be_, the combination is not a passive verb, but a _neuter_ verb in a _passive form_; as, "He _is gone_; The birds _are flown_; The boy _is_ grown_; My friend _is arrived_. " The following mode of construction, is, in general, to be preferred; "He _has_ gone; The birds _have_ flown; The boy _has_ grown; My Friend _has_ arrived. "

 2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb _to be_, through all its variations; as, instead of, I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c. , we may say, I am teaching, thou art teaching, he is teaching, &c. ; and, instead of, I taught, &c. ; I was teaching, &c. This mode of conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of being; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and contributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two words united, are, by some grammarians, denominated an active verb, either transitive or intransitive, as the case may be; as, "I am writing a letter; He is walking:" and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, they term the combination a neuter verb; as, "I am sitting; He is standing. " Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. Either mode may be adopted. 

 * * * * *

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS are those which are used only in some of the moods andtenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

_Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. Perfect or Passive Participle is wanting_. 

May, might. ------------Can, could. ------------Will, would. ------------Shall, should. ------------Must, must. ------------Ought, ought. ----------------- quoth. ------------

 NOTE. _Must_ and _ought_ are not varied. _Ought_ and _quoth_ are never used as auxiliaries. _Ought_ is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which verb determines its tenses. _Ought_ is in the _present_ tense when the infinitive following it is in the present; as, "He _ought_ to do it;" and _ought_ is in the _imperfect_ tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive; as, "He _ought_ to have done it. "

Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, you mayread over the last _three_ lectures carefully and attentively; and assoon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented, you willunderstand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of ourlanguage. In parsing a verb, or any other part of speech, be careful topursue the _systematic order_, and to conjugate every verb until youbecome familiar with all the moods and tenses. 

 "He _should have been punished_ before he committed that atrocious deed. "

_Should have been punished_ is a verb, a word that signifies todo--passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom. --it isformed by adding the perfect part, _punished_ to the neuter verb to_be_--regular, the perf. Part, ends in _ed_--potential mood, it impliesobligation, &c. --pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act which was priorto the other past time specified by "committed"--third pers. Sing. Num. Because the nom. "he" is with which it agrees: RULE 4. _The verbmust agree_, &c. --Conjugated, Indic. Mood, pres. Tense, he is punished;imperf. Tense, he was punished; perf. Tense, he has been punished; andso on. Conjugate it through all the moods and tenses, and speak theparticiples. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by Columbus. Thepreceptor is writing a letter. The letter is written by the preceptor. The work can be done. The house would have been built ere this, had hefulfilled his promise. If I be beaten by that man, he will be punished. Young man, if you wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. Being ridiculed and despised, he left the institution. He is readingHomer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become moreingenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolentdeeds. This ought ye to have done. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

All the most important principles of the science, together with many ofthe rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before youproceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a fewpages, and you will find all the rules presented in a body. Please toexamine them critically, and parse the _examples_ under each rule andnote. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate therespective rules and notes under which they are placed; hence, by payingparticular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly tocomprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes. 

As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the _definitions_so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing;but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse withoutapplying the definitions, you may proceed in the following manner:

 "Mercy is the true badge of nobility. "

_Mercy_ is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, singularnumber, and in the nominative case to "is:" RULE 3. _The nominative casegoverns the verb_. 

_Is_ is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, thirdperson, singular number, agreeing with "mercy, " according to RULE 4. _The verb must agree_, &c. 

_The_ is a definite article, belonging to "badge, " in the singularnumber: RULE 2. _The definite article_ the, &c. 

_True_ is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the noun"badge:" RULE 18. _Adjectives belong_, &c. 

_Badge_ is a noun com. Neuter gender, third person, singular number, andin the nominative case _after_ "is, " and put by apposition with "mercy, "according to RULE 21. _The verb to be may have the same case after it asbefore it_. 

_Of_ is a preposition, connecting "badge" and "nobility, " and showingthe relation between them. 

_Nobility_ is a noun of multitude, mas. And fem. Gender, third person, sing, and in the obj. Case, and governed by "of:" RULE 31. _Prepositionsgovern the objective case_. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. 

What I forfeit for myself is a trifle; that my indiscretions shouldreach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. 

Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke ofNorthumberland. 

King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of Romeas proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. 

Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts; and from whatis left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved, what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of violence, cruelty, andblood. 

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know. 

He that formed the ear, can he not hear?

He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

 NOTE 1. _Learn_, in the first of the preceding examples, is a transitive verb, because the action passes over from the nom. _you_ understood, to _the rest of the sentence_ for its object: RULE 24. In the next example, _that my indiscretions should reach my posterity_, is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the verb _wounds_, according to the same Rule. 

 2. The noun _sacrifice_, in the third example, is nom. After the active-intransitive verb _fell_: RULE 22. The noun _proprietors_, in the next sentence, is in the objective case, and put by apposition with _senate_ and _people_: RULE 7, or governed by _consider_, understood, according to RULE 35. 

 3. In the fifth example, _what_, following _proved_, is a compound relative. _Thing_, the antecedent part, is in the nom. Case after _to be_, understood, and put by apposition with _he_, according to RULE 21, and NOTE. _Which_, the relative part, is in the obj. Case after _to be_ expressed, and put by apposition with _him_, according to the same RULE. _Man_ is in the obj. Case, put by apposition with _which_: RULE 7. The latter part of the sentence may be _literally_ rendered thus: He plainly appears to have proved _to be that base character which_ the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. A _man_ of violence, cruelty, and blood. The antecedent part of the first _what_, in the next sentence, is governed by _hides_; and _which_, the relative part, is governed by _know_ understood. The antecedent part of the second _what_, is governed by _hides_ understood, and the relative part is governed by _know_ expressed. 

 4. The first _he_, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of some, nom. To _can hear_ understood; but Mr. N. R. Smith, a distinguished and acute grammarian, suggests the propriety of rendering the sentence thus; "He that formed the ear, _formed it to hear_; can he not hear?" The first _he_, in the last example, is redundant; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, for the expression is more forcible than it would be to say, "Let him hear who hath ears to hear;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. Smith, the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus; "He that hath ears, _hath ears_ to hear; let him hear. "

EXERCISES IN PARSING. _Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies_. 

1. "The wall is three _feet_ high. "2. "His son is eight _years_ old. "3. "My knife is worth a _shilling_. "4. "She is worth _him_ and all his _connexions_. "5. "He has been there three _times_. "6. "The hat cost ten _dollars_. "7. "The load weighs a _tun_. "8. "The spar measures ninety _feet_. "

REMARKS. --_Anomaly_ is derived from the Greek, _a_, without, and_omales_, similar; that is, _without similarity_. Some give itsderivation thus; _anomaly_, from the Latin, _ab_, from, or out of, and_norma_, a rule, or law, means an _outlaw_; a mode of expression thatdeparts from the rules, laws, or _general_ usages of the language; aconstruction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, it is a general ruleof the language, that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding_r_, or _er_, and _st_, or _est_, to the positive degree; but good, _better, best_; bad, _worse, worst_, are not compared according to thegeneral rule. They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nounsis generally formed by adding s to the singular: man, _men_; woman, _women_; child, _children_; penny, _pence_, are anomalies. The use of_news, means, alms_ and _amends_, in the singular, constitutesanomalies. Anomalous constructions are correct according to custom; but, as they are departures from general rules, by them they cannot beanalyzed. 

An _idiom_, Latin _idioma_, a construction peculiar to a language, maybe an anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not ananomaly, can be analyzed. 

_Feet_ and _years_, in the 1st and 2d examples, are not in thenominative after _is_, according to Rule 21, because they are not inapposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb; but theconstructions are anomalous; and, therefore, no rule can be applied toanalyze them. The same ideas, however; can be conveyed by a legitimateconstruction which can be analyzed; thus, "The _height_ of the wall isthree _feet_;" "The _age_ of my son is eight _years_. "

An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; butsometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction isanomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generallyconsidered anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted indoing, the associated words which modern refinement has dropped, theywill cease to be anomalies; thus, "My knife is _of the_ worth _of_ ashilling;" "--_of the_ worth _of_ him, " &c. "He has been there _for_three times;" as we say, "I was unwell _for_ three days, after Iarrived;" or, "I was unwell three days. " Thus it appears, that bytracing back, _for_ a few centuries, what the merely modern Englishscholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently bediscovered, which, when supplied, destroys the anomaly. 

On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a livinglanguage, the most able philologists can never be agreed; because manyusages will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, asentence may be treated as an anomaly; by others who contend for, andsupply, an ellipsis, the same sentence may be analyzed according to theellipsis supplied; whilst others, who deny both the elliptical andanomalous character of the sentence, construct a rule by which toanalyze it, which rule has for its foundation the principle contained inthat sentence only. This last mode of procedure, inasmuch as it requiresus to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language, appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It appears tobe multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility. 

The verbs, _cost, weighs_, and _measures_, in the 6th, 7th, and 8thexamples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on _resemble, have, own_, &c. , page 56. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "And God said, 'Let there be light, ' and there was light. " "Let usmake man. " "Let us bow before the Lord. " "Let high-born seraphs tune thelyre. "

2. "_Be it_ enacted. " "_Be it_ remembered. " _"Blessed be he_ thatblesseth thee; and _cursed be he_ that curseth thee. " "My soul, turnfrom them:--_turn we_ to survey, " &c. 

3. "_Methinks_ I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him. ""_Methought_ I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep. " "I was therejust thirty _years ago_. "

4. "Their laws and their manners, generally _speaking_, were extremelyrude. " "_Considering_ their means, they have effected much. "

5. 

 "Ah _me!_ nor hope nor life remains. " "_Me_ miserable! which way shall I fly?"

6. 

 "O _happiness!_ our being's end and aim! Good, pleasure, ease, content! whatever thy name, That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh. For which we bear to live, or dare to die. "--

The verb _let_, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has nonominative specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of thefirst, second, or third person, and of either number. Every actionnecessarily depends on an agent or moving cause; and hence it follows, that the verb, in such constructions, has a nominative understood; butas that nominative is not particularly _pointed out_, the constructionsmay be considered anomalous. 

Instead of saying, "_Let_ it [_to_] be enacted;" or, "It _is_ or _shall_be enacted;" "_Let_ him [_to_] be blessed;" or, "He _shall_ be blessed;""_Let us_ turn to survey, " &c. ; the verbs, _be enacted, be blessed, turn_, &c. According to an idiom of our language, or the poet's license, are used in the _imperative_, agreeing with a nominative of the first orthird person. 

The phrases, _methinks_ and _methought_, are anomalies, in which theobjective pronoun _me_, in the _first_ person, is used in place of anominative, and takes a verb after it in the _third_ person. _Him_ wasanciently used in the same manner; as, "_him thute_, him thought. " Therewas a period when these constructions were not anomalies in ourlanguage. Formerly, what we call the _objective_ cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner as our present _nominatives_ are. _Ago_is a contraction of _agone_, the past part. Of to _go_. Before thisparticiple was contracted to an adverb, the noun _years_ preceding it, was in the nominative case absolute; but now the construction amounts toan anomaly. The expressions, "generally speaking, " and "consideringtheir means, " under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, thesubjects to the participles not being specified. 

According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs andprepositions require the _objective_ case of a noun or pronoun afterthem; and this requisition is all that is meant by government, when wesay, that these parts of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, 57, and 94. The same principle applies to the interjection. Interjections require the _objective_ case of a pronoun of the firstperson after them; but the _nominative_ of a noun or pronoun of thesecond or third person; as, "Ah _me!_ Oh _thou!_ O my _country!_" Tosay, then, that interjections _require_ particular cases after them, issynonymous with saying, that they _govern_ those cases; and this officeof the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performsin the Latin and many other languages. In the examples under number 5, the first _me_ is in the objective after "ah, " and the second _me_, after _ah_ understood; thus, "Ah miserable me!" according to NOTE 2, under Rule 5. --_Happiness_, under number 6, is nom. Independent; Rule 5, or in the nom. After _O_, according to this Note. The principlecontained in the note, proves that every noun of the second person is inthe _nominative_ case; for, as the pronoun of the second person, in sucha situation, is always nominative, which is shown by its _form_, itlogically follows that the noun, under such circumstances, although ithas _no form_ to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case asthe pronoun. "Good, pleasure, ease, content, _that_, " the antecedentpart of "whatever, " and _which_, the relative part, are nom. After _art_understood; Rule 21, and _name_ is nom. To _be_ understood. 

The second line may be rendered thus; Whether thou art good, or whetherthou art pleasure, &c. Or _be_ thy _name_ that [thing] which [everthing] it may be: putting _be_ in the imperative, agreeing with _name_in the third person. _Something_ is nominative after _art_ understood. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "All were well _but_ the _stranger_. " "I saw nobody but the_stranger_. " "All had returned but he. " "None but the _brave_ deservethe fair. " "The thing they can't _but_ purpose, they postpone. " "Thislife, at best, is _but_ a dream. " "It affords _but_ a scanty measure ofenjoyment. " "If he _but_ touch the hills, they will smoke. " "Man is_but_ a reed, floating on the current of time. "

2. "Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content. "

3. "Open your hand _wide_. " "The apples boil _soft_. " "The purest clayis that which burns _white_. " "Drink _deep_, or taste not the Pierianspring. "

4. "_What though_ the swelling surge thou see?" &c. "_What if_ the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread?" &c. 

REMARKS. --According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of ourmost critical philologists, _but_ is _always_ a disjunctive conjunction;and agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as apreposition, would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. Theymaintain, that its legitimate and undeviating office is, to join on amember of a sentence which _expresses opposition of meaning_, andthereby forms an exception to, or takes from the universality of, theproposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence. That itsustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples undernumber 1, will be shown by the following resolution of them. --"All werewell but the _stranger [was not well_. "] "I saw nobody but [_I saw_] the_stranger_. " "None deserve the fair but the _brave_ [_deserve thefair_. "] "They postpone the thing which [_they ought to do, and do not]but_ which [_thing_] they cannot avoid purposing to do. " "This life, atbest, [_is not a reality, ] but_ it is a dream. It [_affords notunbounded fruition] but_ it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment. " "Ifhe _touch_ the hills, _but exert no greater power upon them_, they willsmoke;"--"If _he exert no greater power upon the hills, but [be-out thisfact_] if he touch them, they will smoke. " "Man _is not a stable being, but_ he is a reed, floating on the current of time. " This method ofanalyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, is too much on the planof our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their rage for ancientconstructions and combinations, often overlook the modern associatedmeaning and application of this word. It appears to me to be moreconsistent with the _modern_ use of the word, to consider it an _adverb_in constructions like the following: "If he _but (only, merely)_ touchthe hills they will smoke. "

_Except_ and _near_, in examples like the following, are generallyconstrued as prepositions: "All went _except him_;" "She stands _nearthem_. " But many contend, that when we employ _but_ instead of _except_, in such constructions, a _nominative_ should follow: "All went _but he[did not go_. "] On this point and many others, _custom_ is _variable_;but the period will doubtless arrive, when _but, worth_, and _like_, will be considered prepositions, and, in constructions like theforegoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. This will not bethe case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis afterthese words is entirely dropped. 

_Poverty_, under number 2, is governed by the preposition_notwithstanding_, Rule 31. The adjectives _wide, soft, white_, and_deep_, under number 3, not only express the quality of nouns, but alsoqualify verbs: Note 4, under Rule 18. --_What_, in the phrases "whatthough" and "what if, " is an interrogative in the objective case, andgoverned by the verb _matters_ understood, or by some other verb; thus, "What matters it--what dost thou fear, though thou see the swellingsurge?" "What would you think, if the foot, which is ordained to treadthe dust, aspired to be the head?"

In the following examples, the same word is used as several parts ofspeech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning, and by supplying what is understood, you will be able to analyze themcorrectly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I like what you dislike. Every creature loves its like. Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. Thought flies swifter than light. He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. I was happy to hail him as my friend. Hail! beauteous stranger of the wood. The more I examine the work, the better I like it. Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. Much money has been expended. Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. It is much better to give than to receive. Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult. Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. They wrong themselves as well as their friends. 

I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion thanparsing in prose, will be found a more delightful and profitableexercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to come at the meaning ofthe author, you will find it necessary to _transpose_ his language, andsupply what is understood; and then you will have the literal meaning inprose. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

APOSTROPHE TO HOPE. --CAMPBELL. 

 Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, Thy joyous youth began:--but not to fade. -- When all the sister planets have decayed; When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below; Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile, And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile!

TRANSPOSED. 

Eternal Hope! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealedtheir first notes to sound the march of time:--but it began not tofade. --Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sisterplanets shall have decayed; and thou shalt light thy torch at Nature'sfuneral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, andHeaven's last thunder shakes the world below. 

ADDRESS TO ADVERSITY. --GRAY. 

 Daughter of heaven, relentless power, Thou tamer of the human breast, Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, The bad affright, afflict the best! The gen'rous spark extinct revive; Teach me to love and to forgive; Exact my own defects to scan: What others are to feel; and know myself a man. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast, whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict thebest! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark; and teach thou meto love others, and to forgive them; and teach thou me to scan my owndefects exactly, or critically: and teach thou me that which others areto feel; and make thou me to know myself to be a man. 

ADDRESS TO THE ALMIGHTY. --POPE. 

 What conscience dictates to be done, Or warns me not to do, This teach me more than hell to shun, That more than heav'n pursue. 

TRANSPOSED. 

O God, teach thou me to pursue that (_the thing_) which consciencedictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven; and teach thoume to shun this (_the thing_) which conscience warns me not to do, morecautiously than I would shun hell. 

TRIALS OF VIRTUE. --MERRICK. 

 For see, ah! see, while yet her ways With doubtful step I tread, A hostile world its terrors raise, Its snares delusive spread. O how shall I, with heart prepared, Those terrors learn to meet? How, from the thousand snares to guard My unexperienced feet?

TRANSPOSED. 

For see thou, ah! see thou a hostile world _to_ raise its terrors, andsee thou a hostile world _to_ spread its delusive snares, while I yettread her (_virtue's_) ways with doubtful steps. 

O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart? Howshall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares ofthe world?

THE MORNING IN SUMMER. --THOMPSON. 

 Short is the doubtful empire of the night; And soon, observant of approaching day, The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east, Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow, And from before the lustre of her face White break the clouds away. 

TRANSPOSED. 

The doubtful empire of the night is short; and the meek-eyed morn, (_which is the_) mother of dews, observant of approaching day, soonappears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, till thewidening glow spreads far over ether, and the white clouds break awayfrom before the lustre of her face. 

NATURE BOUNTIFUL. --AKENSIDE. 

 --Nature's care, to all her children just, With richest treasures, and an ample state, Endows at large whatever happy man Will deign to use them. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely endows, withrichest treasures and an ample state, that happy man who will deign touse them. 

 NOTE. _What_, in the second example, is a comp. Rel. The antecedent part is gov. By _teach_ understood; and the relative part by _to feel_ expressed. _To shun_ and _to pursue_, in the third example, are in the infinitive mood, gov. By _than_, according to a NOTE under Rule 23. _Faint_ and _from_, in the 5th example, are adverbs. An adverb, in poetry, is often written in the form of an adjective. _Whatever_, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is equivalent to _that_ and _who. That_ is an adj. Pron. Belonging to "man;" _who_ is nom. To "will deign;" and _ever_ is excluded from the sentence in sense. See page 113. Parse these examples as they are transposed, and you will find the analysis very easy. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

GOLD, NOT GENUINE WEALTH. 

 Where, thy true treasure? Gold says, "not in me;" And, "not in me, " the Diamond. Gold is poor. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Where is thy true treasure? Gold says, "It is not in me;" and theDiamond says, "It is not in me. " Gold is poor. 

SOURCE OF FRIENDSHIP. --DR. YOUNG. 

 Lorenzo, pride repress; nor hope to find A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Lorenzo, repress thou pride; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in himwho has already found a friend in thee. 

TRUE GREATNESS. --POPE. 

 Who noble ends by noble means obtains, Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 

TRANSPOSED. 

That man is great indeed, let him _to_ reign like unto good Aurelius, orlet him _to_ bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noblemeans; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends bynoble means, smiles in exile or in chains. 

INVOCATION. --POLLOK. 

 Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom All things seem as they are, inspire my song; My eye unscale: me what is substance teach; And shadow what, while I of things to come, As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. 

TRANSPOSED. 

Eternal Spirit! God of truth! to whom all things seem to be as theyreally are, inspire thou my song; and unscale thou my eyes: teach thou_to_ me the thing which is substance; and teach thou _to_ me the thingwhich is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one singsof things which are past rehearsing. Grant thou _to_ me thought andphraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea. 

THE VOYAGE OF LIFE. 

 How few, favored by ev'ry element, With swelling sails make good the promised port, With all their wishes freighted! Yet ev'n these, Freighted with all their wishes, soon complain. Free from misfortune, not from nature free, They still are men; and when is man secure? As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years Beats down their strength; their numberless escapes In ruin end: and, now, their proud success But plants new terrors on the victor's brow. What pain, to quit the world just made their own! Their nests so deeply downed and built so high!-- Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. 

TRANSPOSED. 

How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised portwith swelling sails, and with all their wishes freighted! Yet even thesefew persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishesfreighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet(_though_ and _yet_, corresponding conjunctions, form only _one_connexion) they are not free from the course of nature, for they stillare men; and when is man secure? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm isto the mariner. --The rush of years beats down their strength; (_that is, the strength of these few_;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin:and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor'sbrow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have madeit to be their own world; when their nests are built so high, and whenthey are downed so deeply!--They who build beneath the stars, build toolow for their own safety. 

REFLECTIONS ON A SCULL. --LORD BYRON. 

 Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell? Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell! Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, Its chambers desolate, and portals foul; Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall, The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, And passion's host, that never brooked control. Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, People this lonely tower, this tenement refit?

TRANSPOSED. 

Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shatteredcell! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate chambers, and on its foul portals:--yes, this scullwas once ambition's airy hall; (_it was_) the dome of thought, thepalace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which neverbrooked control. Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophistshave ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refit thistenement?

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from theEnglish Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisitionthe reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tendmore rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable thatyour future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysisof poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, youought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples justpresented; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless youhave the subject-matter already stored in your mind. 

 * * * * *

LECTURE XIV. 

OF DERIVATION. 

At the commencement of Lecture II. , I informed you that Etymologytreats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymology, important as itis, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequentlyagitated; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtlessbe useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one wordis derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turnback and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and inthe PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs. 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love, " comes "lover;" from"to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver, " &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult todetermine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun fromthe verb, _viz_. "Love, to love; hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, tosleep; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; act, to act, " &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs;as, from the noun _salt_, comes "to salt;" from the adjective _warm_, "to warm;" and from the adverb _forward_, "to forward. " Sometimes theyare formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant; as, from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding _en_; as, from "length, tolengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short, to shorten;bright, to brighten. "

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner: adjectivesdenoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding _y_; as, from "Health, healthy; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty, " &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, arederived from nouns by adding _en_; as, from "Oak, oaken; wood, wooden;wool, woollen, " &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding _ful_;as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful, " &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, arederived from nouns by adding _some_; as, from "Light, lightsome;trouble, troublesome; toil, toilsome, " &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding _less_; as, from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, joyless, " &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding _ly_; as, from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly, " &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from nouns byadding _ish_ to them; which termination when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality; as, "White, whitish;" i. E. Somewhat white. When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendencyto a character; as, "Child, childish; thief, thievish. "

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination_able_; and those adjectives signify capacity; as, "Answer, answerable;to change, changeable. "

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding thetermination _ness_; as, "White, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimesby adding _th_ or _t_, and making a small change in some of the letters;as, "Long, length; high, height. "

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding _ly_, orchanging _le_ into _ly_; and denote the same quality as the adjectivesfrom which they are derived; as, from "base, " comes "basely;" from"slow, slowly;" from "able, ably. "

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that itwould be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to enumerate them. Theprimitive words of every language are very few; the derivatives formmuch the greater number. A few more instances only can be given here. 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations_hood_ or _head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment_, and _age_. 

Nouns ending in _hood_ or _head_, are such as signify character orqualities; as, "Manhood, knighthood, falsehood, " &c. 

Nouns ending in _ship_, are those that signify office, employment, state, or condition; as, "Lordship, stewardship, partnership, " &c. Somenouns in _ship_ are derived from adjectives; as, "Hard, hardship, " &c. 

Nouns which end in _ery_, signify action or habit; as, "Slavery, foolery, prudery, " &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives; as, "Brave, bravery, " &c. 

Nouns ending in _wick, rick_, and _dom_, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or condition; as, "Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, dukedom, freedom, " &c. 

Nouns which end in _ian_, are those that signify profession; as, "Physician, musician, " &c. Those that end in _ment_ and _age_, comegenerally from the French, and commonly signify the act or habit; as, "Commandment, " "usage. "

Some nouns ending in _ard_, are derived from verbs or adjectives, anddenote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; dote, dotard. "

Some nouns have the form of diminutives; but these are not many. Theyare formed by adding the terminations _kin, ling, ing, ock, el_, and thelike; as, "Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling; duck, duckling; hill, hillock;cock, cockerel, " &c. 

OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PREFIXES. 

I shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list ofLatin and Greek prepositions which are extensively used in English asprefixes. By carefully studying their signification, you will be betterqualified to understand the meaning of those words into the compositionof which they enter, and of which they form a material part. 

I. LATIN PREFIXES. 

_A, ab, abs_--signify from or away; as, _a-vert_, to turn from;_ab-ject_, to throw away; _abs-tract_, to draw away. 

_Ad_--to or at; as, _ad-here_, to stick to; _ad-mire_, to wonder at. 

_Ante_--means before; as, _ante-cedent_, going before. 

_Circum_--signifies round, about; as, _circum-navigate_, to sail round. 

_Con, com, co, col_--together; as, _con-join_, to join together;_com-press_, to press together; _co-operate_, to work together;_col-lapse_, to fall together. 

_Contra_--against; as, _contra-dict_, to speak against. 

_De_--from, down; as, _de-duct_, to take from; _de-scend_, to go down. 

_Di, dis_--asunder, away; as, _di-lacerate_, to tear asunder;_dis-miss_, to send away. 

_E, ef, ex_--out; as, _e-ject_, to throw out; _ef-flux_, to flow out;_ex-clude_, to shut out. 

_Extra_--beyond; as, _extra-ordinary_, beyond what is ordinary. 

_In, im, il, ir_--(_in_, Gothic, _inna_, a cave or cell;) as, _in-fuse_, to pour in. These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly reverse their meaning; as, _in-sufficient, im-polite, il-legitimate, ir-reverence, ir-resolute_. 

_Inter_--between; as, _inter-pose_, to put between. 

_Intro_--within, into; _intro-vert_, to turn within; _intro-duce_, tolead into. 

_Ob, op_--denote opposition; as, _ob-ject_, to bring against; _op-pugn_, to oppose. 

_Per_--through, by; as, _per-ambulate_, to walk through; _per-haps_, byhaps. 

_Post_--after; as, _post-script_, written after; _post-fix_, placedafter. 

_Præ, pre_--before; as, _pre-fix_, to fix before. 

_Pro_--for, forth, forward; as, _pro-noun_, for a noun; _pro-tend_, tostretch forth; _pro-ject_, to shoot forward. 

_Præter_--past, beyond; as, _preter-perfect_, pastperfect;_preter-natural_, beyond the course of nature. 

_Re_--again or back; as, _re-peruse_, to peruse again; _re-trade_, totrade back. 

_Retro--_backwards; as, _retro-spective_, looking backwards. 

_Se_--aside, apart; as, _se-duce_, to draw aside. 

_Sub_--under; as, _sub-scribe_, to write under, or _sub-sign_. 

_Subter_--under; as, _subter-fluous_, flowing under. 

_Super_--above or over; as, _super-scribe_, to write above;_super-vise_, to overlook. 

_Trans_--over, beyond, from one place to another; as, _trans-port_, tocarry over; _trans-gress_, to pass beyond. 

II. GREEK PREFIXES. 

_A_--signifies privation; as, _anonymous_, without name. 

_Amphi_--both or two; as, _amphi-bious_, partaking of both or twonatures, _Anti_--against; as, _anti-masonry_, against masonry. 

_Dia_--through; as, _dia-meter_, line passing through a circle. 

_Hyper_--over; as, _hyper-critical_, over or too critical. 

_Hypo_--under, implying concealment or disguise; as, _hypo-crite_, onedissembling his real character. 

_Meta--_denotes change or transmutation; as, _meta-morphose_, to changethe shape. 

_Para_--contrary or against; as, _para-dox_, a thing contrary toreceived opinion. 

_Peri_--round about; as, _peri-phrasis_, circumlocution. 

_Syn, syl, sym_--together; as, _syn-tax_, a placing together; _syn-od_, a meeting or coming together; _syl-lable_, that portion of a word whichis taken together; _sym-pathy_, fellow-feeling, or feeling together. 

RULES OF SYNTAX, WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement andgovernment of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

SYNTAX consists of two parts, _Concord_ and _Government_. 

CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, person, number, or case. 

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53. 

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words andmembers, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the _nominative_ orsubject, the _verb_ or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the _object_, or thing affected by the action of the verb; as, "Awise _man governs_ his _passions_. " In this sentence, _man_ is thesubject; _governs_, the attribute; and _passions_ the object. 

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes apart of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

ELLIPSIS is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoiddisagreeable and unnecessary repetitions, and to express our ideasconcisely, and with strength and elegance. 

In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensedform, many of the essential NOTES being omitted. This is a necessaryconsequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you knoware blended. Hence, to acquire a complete knowledge of Syntax from thiswork, you must look over the whole. 

You may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises infalse Syntax; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errorswithout looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you shouldbe at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions areerroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages. 

RULE I. 

The article _a_ or _an_ agrees with nouns in the _singular_ number only, individually or collectively; as, "_A_ star, _an_ eagle, _a_ score, _a_thousand. "

RULE II. 

The definite article _the_ belongs to nouns in the _singular_ or_plural_ number; as, "_The_ star, _the_ stars; _the_ hat, _the_ hats. "

 NOTE 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the use or omission of the article _a_. If I say, "He behaved with _a_ little reverence, " my meaning is positive. But if I say, "He behaved with little reverence, " my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, "There were few men with him, " I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, "There were a few men with him, " I evidently intend to make the most of them. 

 2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of _every_ or _each_; as, "They cost five shillings _a_ dozen;" that is, '_every_ dozen. '

 "A man he was to all the country dear, And passing rich with forty pounds _a_ year!"

 that is, '_every_ year. '

 3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various qualities of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should be repeated; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. "_A_ black and _a_ white calf, " signifies, A black _calf_, and a white _calf_; but "_A_ black and white calf, " describes the two colors of _one_ calf. 

RULE III. 

The nominative case governs the verb; as, "_I_ learn, _thou_ learnest, _he_ learns, _they_ learn. "

RULE IV. 

The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person; as, "Thebird _sings_, the birds _sing_, thou _singest_. "

 NOTE 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nominative, expressed or implied; as, "Awake, arise;" that is, Awake _ye_; arise _ye_. 

 2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be considered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is more naturally its subject; as, "The wages of sin _is_ death; His meat _was_ locusts and wild honey;" "His pavilion _were_ dark _waters_ and thick _clouds_. "

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. The sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live suitably to them?Disappointments sinks the heart of man; but the renewal of hope giveconsolation. The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations ofnature; are without limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relievehim. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 

 O thou, my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. _Note_ 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, And never, never be to Heaven resigned?

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had greatabilities to manage the business. 

_Note 2_. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. 

RULE V. 

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in thenominative case _independent_; as, "_Plato_, thou reasonest well;" "Do, _Trim_, said my uncle Toby. "

 NOTE 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it. 

 2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the _first_ person after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the _second_ or _third_ person; as, "Ah! _me_; Oh! _thou_; O! _virtue_. "

RULE VI. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent ofthe rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case _absolute_; as, "_Shame being lost_; all virtue is lost;" "The _sun being risen_, wetravelled on. "

 NOTE. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, should belong to some verb expressed or understood; as, "To whom thus _Adam_;" that is, _spoke_. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Him Destroyed, Or won to what may work his utter loss, All this will follow soon. 

 _Note_. --Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so constitutedas ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit. 

RULE VII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, areput, by apposition, in the same case; as, "_Paul_, the _apostle;_""_Joram_, the _king;_" "_Solomon_, the _son_ of David, _king_ of Israel, wrote many proverbs. "

 NOTE. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence; as, "The sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--_(which was) a misfortune_ that greatly depressed him. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. 

The pronoun _he_ in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominativecase. It is the object of the action of the transitive verb "love, " andput by apposition with "God;" therefore it should be the objectivecase, _him_, according to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct thefollowing. )

 I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. 

 They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

 It was John, him who preached repentance. 

 Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declaration of Independence. 

 Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius Cesar, is variously described by historians. 

RULE VIII. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, andpronouns, agreeing with them in the _plural_; as, "Socrates _and_ Plato_were_ wise; _they_ were eminent _philosophers_. "

 NOTE 1. When _each_ or _every_ relates to two or more nominatives in the singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each of them in the singular; as, "_Every_ leaf, _and every_ twig, _and every_ drop of water, _teems_ with life. "

 2. When the singular nominative of a complex sentence, has another noun joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "Prosperity with humility, _renders its_ possessor truly amiable;" "The General, also, in conjunction with the officers, _has_ applied for redress. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies: it is exported in large quantities. 

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb _grow_is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, "coffee and sugar, " which two nominatives are connected by thecopulative conjunction, _and_; therefore the verb should be plural, _grow_; and then it would agree with coffee _and_ sugar, according toRule 8. (Repeat the Rule. ) The pronoun _it_, as it represents both thenouns, "coffee and sugar, " ought also to be plural, _they_, agreeably toRule 8. The sentence should be written thus. "Coffee and sugar _grow_ inthe West Indies: _they are_ exported in large quantities. "

 Time and tide waits for no man. 

 Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

 Life and health is both uncertain. 

 Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

 The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. 

 What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you have no need of assistance?

 Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

 Why is whiteness and coldness in snow?

 Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother; bind it continually upon thy heart. 

 Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes of the judicious. 

 There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect. 

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. 

 Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. 

Not proper; for, although _and_ couples things together so as to presentthe whole at one view, yet _every_ has a contrary effect: it distributesthem, and brings each separately and singly under consideration. _Were_numbered is therefore improper. It should be, "_was_ numbered, " in thesingular, according to the Note. (Repeat it. )

 When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light. 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the _singular_ number, connected by disjunctive conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, andpronouns, agreeing with them in the _singular_; as, "Neither John _nor_James _has_ learned _his_ lesson. "

 NOTE 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, with that which is placed nearest to it; as, "Thou _or_ I _am_ in fault; I _or_ thou _art_ to blame; I, _or_ thou, _or_ he, _is_ the author of it. " But it would be better to say "Either I am to blame or thou art, " &c. 

 2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which should generally be placed next to the verb; as, "Neither poverty _nor riches_ were injurious to him;" "I _or_ they were offended by it. "

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

The verb, _have_ caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in theplural, because it expresses the action, not of _both_, but of eitherthe one or the other of its nominatives; therefore it should be in thesingular, _has_ caused; and then it would agree with "ignorance _or_negligence, " agreeably to Rule 9 (Repeat the Rule. )

 A circle or a square are the same in idea. 

 Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. 

 Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 

 Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved. 

 When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. 

 Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 

 Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thy own lot. 

 The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. 

RULE X. 

A collective noun or noun of multitude, conveying _unity_ of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the _singular_; as, "The _meeting was_ large, and _it_ held three hours. "

 NOTE. Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 The nation are powerful. 

 The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 

 The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's care. 

 That nation was once powerful; but now they are feeble. 

RULE XI. 

A noun of multitude, conveying _plurality_ of idea, must have a verb orpronoun agreeing with it in the _plural_; as, "The _council were_divided in _their_ sentiments. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 My people doth not consider. 

 The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. 

 The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the business to the general meeting. 

 The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. 

RULE XII. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the noun itpossesses; as, "_Man's_ happiness;" "_Its_ value is great. "

 NOTE 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only; as, "The _duke of Bridgewater's_ canal; The _bishop of Landaff's_ excellent book; The _captain of the guard's_ house. " This usage, however, ought generally to be avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What nonsense to say, "This is _the governor of Ohio's_ house!"

 2. When nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last only; as, "For _David_ my _servant's_ sake; _John_ the _Baptist's_ head; The canal was built in consequence of _De Witt Clinton_ the _governor's_ advice. "

 But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the rest; as, "I reside at Lord _Stormont's_, my old _patron_ and _benefactor_. "

 3. _Its_, the possessive case of _it_, is often improperly used for _'tis_, or, _it is_; as, "_Its_ my book: _Its_ his, " &c. ; instead of, _"It is_ my book; or, _'Tis_ my book; _It is_ his; or, _'Tis_ his. "

 4. Participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, as, "In case of his _majesty's dying_ without issue, &c. ; Upon _God's having ended_ all his works, &c. ; I remember _its being reckoned_ a great exploit; At _my coming_ in he said, " &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28. 

 5. Phrases like these, "A work of _Washington Irving's_; A brother of _Joseph's_; A friend of _mine_; A neighbor of _yours_, " do not, as some have supposed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but they may be thus construed; "A work of (_out of_, or, _among the number of) Washington Irving's works_; that is, One of the works of _Washington Irving_; One of the brothers _of Joseph_; One friend _of my friends_; One neighbor of _your neighbors_. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Homers works are much admired. 

 Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. 

 James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. 

 _Note_ 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities. 

 This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. 

 _Note_ 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. 

 The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's. 

 _Note_ 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. 

 Much depends on this rule being observed. 

 The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council. 

RULE XIII. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in_gender_ and _number_; as, "_John_ writes, and _he_ will soon writewell. "

 NOTE. You, though frequently employed to represent a singular noun, is always _plural in form_; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; as, "My friend, you _were_ mistaken. " See pages and

FALSE SYNTAX

 Every man will be rewarded according to their works. 

Incorrect, because the pronoun _their_ does not agree in gender ornumber with the noun "man, " for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, is violated. _Their_ should be _his_; and then the pronoun would be ofthe masculine gender, singular number, agreeing with _man_, according toRule 13. (Repeat the Rule. )

 An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience. 

 Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

 Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. 

 No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation. 

 _Note_. Horace, you was blamed; and I think you was worthy of censure. 

 Witness, where was you standing during the transaction? How far was you from the defendant?

RULE XIV. 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in _gender_, _person_, and _number_; as, "Thou _who lovest_ wisdom;" "I _who speak_ fromexperience. "

 NOTE. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of different persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense; as, "I am the man _who command_ you;" or, "I am the man _who commands_ you. " The meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear, if we render it thus: "I who command you, am the _man_. "

 When the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents, it must be preserved throughout the sentence; as, "I am the _Lord, that maketh_ all things; _that stretcheth_ forth the heavens alone; _that spreadeth_ abroad the earth by myself, " &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. 

 The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means. 

 Thou great First Cause, least understood!

 Who all my sense confined. 

 _Note, 2d part_. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abraham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. 

RULE XV. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominativecomes between it and the verb; as, "The master _who_ taught us, waseminent. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him. 

 This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. 

RULE XVI. 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relativeis governed by the following verb, or by some other word in its ownmember of the sentence; as, "He _whom_ I _serve_, is eternal. "

 NOTE 1. _Who, which, what_, the relative _that_, and their compounds, _whomever, whomsoever_, &c. , though in the objective case, are always placed before the verb; as, "He _whom_ ye _seek_, has gone hence. "

 2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either expressed or implied; as, "_Who_ steals my purse, steals trash;" that is, _he_ who. 

 3. The pronouns _whichsoever, whatsoever_, and the like, are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns; as, "On _which_ side _soever_ the _king_ cast his eyes, " &c. 

 4. The pronoun _what_ is sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunction _that;_ as, "He would not believe but _what_ I was in fault. " It should be "but _that_, " &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. 

Not proper, because _who_, which is the object of the action expressedby the transitive verb "esteem, " is in the nominative case. It ought tobe _whom_, in the objective; and then it would be governed by esteem, according to Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule:)--and, also, according to Rule20. "That is the friend _whom_ I sincerely esteem. "

 They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

 From the character of those who you associate with, your own will be estimated. 

 He is a man who I greatly respect. 

 Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love, and who we ought to be grateful to. 

 They who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of fortune. 

 Who did you walk with?

 Who did you see there?

 Who did you give the book to?

RULE XVII. 

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind, it refers to theword or phrase containing the answer to the question for its_subsequent_, which subsequent must agree in _case_ with theinterrogative; as, "_Whose_ book is that? _Joseph's;" "Who_ gave youthis? _John_. "

 NOTE. Whether the interrogative _really refers_ to a subsequent or not, is doubtful; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the interrogative. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Who gave John those books? Us. Of whom did you buy them? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl street. 

 Who walked with you? My brother and him. 

 Who will accompany me to the country? Her and me. 

RULE XVIII. 

Adjectives belong to, and qualify nouns, expressed or understood; as, "He is a _good_, as well as a _wise_ man. "

 NOTE 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns; as, "I am _miserable; He_ is _industrious_. "

 2. Numeral adjectives belong to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives, when of the _cardinal_ kind; as, "Ten _feet_; Eighty _fathoms_. " But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule; as, "A fleet of _forty sail;" "Two hundred head of cattle_. "

 3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part of a sentence; as, "_To see_ is _pleasant_; To be blind is _unfortunate_; To die for our country is _glorious_. "

 4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced; as, "_Red hot_ iron; _Pale blue_ lining; _Deep sea-green_ sash; The apples boil _soft_; Open your hand _wide_; The clay burns _white_; The fire burns _blue_; The eggs boil _hard_. "

 5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is understood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase; as, "In general, in particular;" that is, generally, particularly. 

 6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, "A tract of _good_ land. "

 7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison; such as, _more impossible, most impossible; more unconquerable, more perfect_, &c. See REMARKS on adjectives, page 76. 

 8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in the comparative degree; but when more than two are compared, the superlative ought to be employed; as, "Julia is the _taller_ of the two; Her specimen is the _best_ of the three. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 _Note_ 2. The boat carries thirty tun. 

 The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in depth. 

 _Note_ 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture. 

 My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land. 

 _Note_ 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible. 

 It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. 

 This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. 

 _Note_ 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest?

 I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. 

RULE XIX. 

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood; as, "_Any_man, _all_ men. "

 NOTE 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns; as, "_This_ book, _these_ books; _that_ sort, _those_ sorts. "

 2. The pronominal adjectives, _each, every, either, neither, another_, and _one_, agree with nouns in the singular number only; as, "_Each_ man, _every_ person, _another_ lesson;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea: as, "_Every_ six months. "

 3. _Either_ is often improperly employed instead of _each;_ as, "The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat _either_ of them on his throne. " _Each_ signifies _both_ taken separately; _either_ implies only _the one_ or _the other_ taken disjunctively:--"sat _each_ on _his_ throne. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 _Note_ 1. Those sort of favors do real injury. 

 They have been playing this two hours. 

 These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. He saw one or more persons enter the garden. 

 _Note_ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 

 There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible. 

 Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion. 

 _Note_ 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 

 Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 

RULE XX. 

Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; as, "Cesar conquered_Pompey_;" "Columbus discovered _America_;" "Truth ennobles _her_. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. 

_Ye_, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object ofthe action expressed by the transitive verb "hath quickened;" andtherefore it should be _you_, in the objective case. _You_ would then begoverned by "hath quickened, " agreeably, to Rule 20. _Active-transitiveverbs govern the objective case_. 

 Who did they entertain so freely?

 They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

 He and they we know, but who are ye?

 She that is negligent, reprove sharply. 

 He invited my brother and I to pay him a visit. 

 Who did they send on that mission?

 They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to love. 

RULE XXI. 

The verb _to be_ may have the same case after it as before it; as, "_I_am the _man_;" "I believe _it_ to have been _them;_" "_He_ is the_thief_. "

 NOTE 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb _to be_, signify the _same thing_, they are _in apposition_, and, therefore, in the _same case_. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7. 

 2. The verb _to be_ is often understood; as, "The Lord made _me man_; He made _him what_ he was;" that is, "The Lord made me _to be_ man; He made him _to be that which_ he was. " "They desired me to call _them brethren_;" i. E. _by the name of_ brethren. "They named _him John_;" i. E. _by the name of_ John; or, by the _name_ John; putting these two nouns in _apposition_. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 I know it to be they. 

Improper, because _it_ is in the objective case before the verb "to be, "and _they_ is in the nominative after; consequently, Rule 21 isviolated. _They_ is in apposition with _it_, therefore _they_ should be_them_, in the objective after to be, according to Rule 21. (Repeat theRule. )

 Be composed, it is me. 

 I would not act thus, if I were him. 

 Well may you be afraid; it is him, indeed. 

 Who do you fancy him to to be?

 Whom do men say that I am? Whom say ye that I am?

 If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been?

 He supposed it was me; but you knew that it was him. 

RULE XXII. 

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb _to become_, and otherneuter verbs, have the same case after them as before them, when bothwords refer to, and signify, the same thing; as, "_Tom_ struts a_soldier_;" "_Will_ sneaks a _scrivener_;" "_He_ was called _Cesar_;""The _general_ was saluted _emperor_;" "_They_ have become _fools_. "

 NOTE 1. Active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form, and govern the objective case; as, "_To dream_ a _dream; To run_ a _race; To walk_ the _horse; To dance_ the _child; To fly_ the _kite_. "

 2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not literally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive verb, which causes the verb to be followed by an _objective_ case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition: thus, "_Pitticus_ was offered a large _sum_ by the king;" "_She_ was promised _them_ (the _jewels_) by her mother;" "_I_ was asked a _question_. " It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, "A large _sum_ was offered _to Pitticus_;" "_They_ were promised _(to) her_;" "A _question_ was put _to me_. "

 3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs. To _smile_, to _wonder_, to _dream_, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice; but, to _smile on_, to _wonder at_, to _dream of_, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive voice; as, "He _was smiled on_ by fortune; The accident is not _to be wondered at_;"

 "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, "Than _are dreamed of_ in your philosophy. "

RULE XXIII. 

A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun; as, "_Cease_ to do evil;" "We allhave our _talent_ to be improved;" "She is _eager_ to learn;" "They are_preparing_ to go;" "Let _him_ do it. "

ILLUSTRATION. The supposed principle of _government_ referred to in thisrule, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, "Cease to do evil, " thepeculiar manner in which _cease_ is introduced, _requires_ or _compels_us to put the verb _do_ in the infinitive mood; and, according to thegenius of our language, we cannot express this act of doing, when thusconnected with _cease_, in any other mood, unless we change theconstruction of the sentence. Hence we say, that _cease_ governs themood of the verb _do_. Similar remarks may be applied to the words_talent_, _eager_, _preparing_, and _him_, in the respective examplesunder the rule. 

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this moodinvariably to the preposition _to_ prefixed, which word they do not, ofcourse, consider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with someplausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. Ifwe reject the idea of government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if substituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. 

RULE. 

A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as itssubject or actor. 

ILLUSTRATION of the examples under Rule XXIII. "To do" refers to _thou_understood for its agent; "to be improved" refers to _talent_; "tolearn, " to _she_; "to go, " to _they_; and "to do, " refers to _him_. 

 NOTE 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence; as, "_To confess_ the truth, I was in fault. "

 2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; as, "An object so high _as to be_ invisible;" "He is wise _enough to deceive_;" "The army is _about to march_. "

RULE XXIV. 

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is frequently put as thenominative case to a verb, or the object of an active-transitive verb;as, "_To play_ is pleasant;" "Boys love _to play_;" "_That warm climatesshorten life_, is reasonable to suppose;" "He does not consider _hownear he approaches to his end_. "

 NOTE. _To_, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omitted; as, "I heard him _say_ it;" instead of, "to _say_ it. "

RULE XXV. 

The verbs which follow _bid_, _dare_, _need_, _make_, _see_, _hear_, _feel_, _help_, _let_, and their participles, are in the infinitive moodwithout the sign _to_ prefixed; as, "He bids me _come_;" "I dare_engage_;" "Let me _go_;" "Help me _do it_;" i. E. _to come_, _to go_, _to do_ it, &c. "He is _hearing_ me _recite_. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Bid him to come. 

 He durst not to do it without permission. 

 Hear him to read his lesson. 

 It is the difference in their conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other. 

 It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. 

 I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 

RULE XXVI. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which theyare derived; as, "I saw the tutor _instructing_ his _pupils_. "

 NOTE. The present participle with the definite article _the_ before it, becomes a noun, and must have the preposition _of_ after it. _The_ and _of_ must both be used, or both be omitted; as, "By _the_ observing _of_ truth, you will command respect;" or, "By observing truth, " &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 _Note_. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it. 

 The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone. 

 These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you may avoid mistakes. 

RULE XXVII. 

The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting thesubject or actor; as, "I see a _boy running_. "

RULE XXVIII. 

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, to some noun orpronoun, expressed or understood; as, "I saw the boy _abused_. "

 NOTE 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them; as, "_Pontius Pilate_ being _Governor_ of Judea, and _Herod_ being _Tetrarch_, " &c. 

 2. A participle with its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition; as, "_Taking from another without his knowledge or assent_, is called stealing; He studied to avoid _expressing himself too severely_; I cannot fail of _having money_, &c. ; By _promising much and performing but little_, we become despicable. "

 3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, 'He begun, ' for 'he began;' 'He run, ' for 'he ran;' 'He come, ' for 'he came;' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense; and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle; as, 'I had wrote, ' for 'I had written;' 'I was chose, ' for 'I was chosen;' 'I have eat, ' for 'I have eaten. ' 'He would have spoke;'--_spoken_. 'He overrun his guide;'--_overran_. 'The sun had rose;'--_risen_. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 I seen him. I have saw many a one. 

_Seen_ is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of theimperfect tense of the verb. It ought to be, "I _saw_ him, " according toNote 3, _Have saw_ is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employedinstead of the perfect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formedby combining the auxiliary _have_ with its perfect participle: thereforethe sentence should be written thus, "I have _seen_ many a one:" Note 3. 

 _Note_ 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before he come home. 

 Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went to Europe long ago. 

 The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. 

 Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. 

 The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 

 He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ on the same subject. 

RULE XXIX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs; as, "A _very good_ pen _writes extremely well_;" "By _living temperately_, "&c. 

 NOTE 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after verbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb; as, "He made a _very sensible_ discourse, and was _attentively_ heard. "

 2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses _quality_, it must be an adjective, but when it expresses _manner_, an adverb should be used; as, "She looks _cold;_ She looks _coldly_ on him; He feels _warm;_ He feels _warmly_ the insult offered to him. " If the verb _to be_ can be substituted for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb; as, "She looks _[is] cold_; The hay smells _[is] sweet_; The fields look _[are] green_; The apples taste _[are] sour_; The wind blows _[is] fresh_. "

 3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs _here, there_, and _where_, to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs _hither, thither, whither_; thus, "He came _here [hither]_ hastily;" "They rode _there [thither]_ in two hours;" "_Where [whither]_ will he go?" But in familiar style, these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. 

 4. The use of _where_, instead of _in which_, in constructions like the following, is hardly admissible: "The immortal sages of '76, formed a charter, _where [in which]_ their rights are boldly asserted. "

 5. As the adverbs _hence, thence_, and _whence_, literally supply the place of a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them: "_From whence_ it follows;" "He came _from thence_ since morning. " Better, "_whence_ it follows;" "He came _thence_. " The following phrases are also exceptionable: "The _then_ ministry;" "The _above_ argument;" "Ask me _never_ so much dowry;" "Charm he _never_ so wisely. " Better, "The ministry _of that time_ or _period_;" "The _preceding_ argument;" "_Ever_ so much dowry;" "_Ever_ so wisely. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 _Note_ 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. 

 He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 

 These things should be never separated. 

 We may happily live, though our possessions are small. 

RULE XXX. 

Two negatives destroy one another, and are generally equivalent to anaffirmative; as, "Such things are _not un_common;" i. E. They are common. 

 NOTE. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression; as, "His language, though inelegant, is _not un_grammatical;" that is, it is grammatical. 

 But, as two negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an affirmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a _negative_ meaning. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: "I can_not_ by _no_ means allow him what his argument must prove. " It should be, "I cannot by _any_ means, " &c. , or, "I _can_ by _no_ means. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 _Note, 2d part_. I don't know nothing about it. 

 I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. 

 Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 

 There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 

 Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 

RULE XXXI. 

Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "He went _from_ Utica _to_Rome, and then passed _through_ Redfield. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Each is accountable for hisself. 

 They settled it among theirselves. 

 It is not I who he is displeased with. 

 Who did you go with?

 Who did you receive instruction from?

RULE XXXII. 

_Home_, and nouns signifying _distance_, time _when_, _how long_, &c. Are generally governed by a preposition _understood_; as, "The horse rana mile;" "He came _home_ last June;" "My friend lived four _years_ atcollege;" that is, ran _through the space of_ a mile; or, ran _over aspace called_ a mile; _to_ his home _in_ last June; _during_ four years, &c. 

 NOTE 1. The prepositions _to_ and _for_ are often understood, chiefly before the pronouns; as, "Give [to] _me_ a book; Get [for] _him_ some paper. "

 2. _To_ or _unto_, is, by some, supposed to be understood after _like_ and _unlike_; as, "He is _like_ [unto] his brother; She is _unlike_ [to] him. " Others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language, and maintain that _like_ governs the objective following it. 

 3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are used without a governing word; as, "The Ohio is one thousand _miles_ long; She is ten _years_ old; My hat is worth ten _dollars_. " These are sometimes considered anomalies. See page 163. 

RULE XXXIII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as, "Themaster taught _her_ and _me_ to write;" "_He_ and _she_ are associates. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 My brother and him are grammarians. 

 You and me enjoy great privileges. 

 Him and I went to the city in company; but John and him returned without me. 

 Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. 

RULE XXXIV. 

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses; as, "Ifthou sincerely _desire, and_ earnestly _pursue_ virtue, she _will_assuredly _be found_ by thee, _and prove_ a rich reward. "

 NOTE 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, the nominative must be repeated; as, "He _may return_, but _he will_ not _tarry_. "

 2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive mood after them; as, "_If_ he _study_, he will improve. " See pages 135, 145, and 155. 

 3. The conjunctions _if_, _though_, _unless_, _except_, _whether_, and _lest_, generally require the subjunctive mood after them. 

 4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, require the indicative mood; as, "_As_ virtue _advances, so_ vice _recedes_. "

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him?

 Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 

 _Note_ 1. He has gone home, but may return. 

 The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. 

 _Note_ 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. 

 If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 

RULE XXXV. 

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction _than_, _as_, or _but_, isnominative to a verb, or governed by a verb or preposition, expressed orunderstood; as, "Thou art wiser _than_ I [_am_. "] "I saw nobody _but_[_I saw_] him. "

 NOTE 1. The conjunction _as_, when it is connected with _such_, _many_, or _same_, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a _relative pronoun_; as, "Let _such_ as presume to advise others, " &c. ; that is, Let _them who_, &c. See page 116. 

 2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically; as "Wo is me;" that is, _to_ me; "To sleep all night;" i. E. _through_ all _the_ night; "He has gone a journey;" i. E. _on_ a journey; "They walked a league;" i. E. _over a space called_ a league. 

 3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its force, they must be expressed. 

 4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect: all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

 They are much greater gainers than me. 

 They know how to write as well as him; but he is a better grammarian than them. 

 They were all well but him. 

 None were rewarded but him and me. 

 Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. 

REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, _in point oftime_, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should beobserved. 

Instead of saying, "The Lord _hath given_, and the Lord _hath taken_away;" we should say, "The Lord _gave_, and the Lord _hath taken_ away. "Instead of, "I _remember_ the family more than twenty years;" it shouldbe, "I _have remembered_ the family more than twenty years. "

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, andof words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, isthis very general one; _Observe what the sense necessarily requires_. 

To say, "I _have_ visited Washington last summer; I _have seen_ the workmore than a month ago, " is not good _sense_. The constructions shouldbe, "I _visited_ Washington, &c. ; I _saw_ the work, &c. " "This mode ofexpression _has been_ formerly much admired:"--"_was_ formerly muchadmired. " "If I _had have_ been there;" "If I _had have_ seen him;""_Had_ you _have_ known him, " are solecisms too gross to needcorrection. We can say, I _have_ been, I _had_ been; but what sort of atense is, _had have been_? To place _had_ before the _defective_ verbought, is an error equally gross and illiterate:--"_had_ ought, _hadn't_ought. " This is as low a vulgarism as the use of _theirn_, _hern_, and_hizzen_, _tother_, _furder_, _baynt_, _this ere_, I _seed_ it, I_tell'd_ him. 

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of that time inwhich it took place; remains, the _imperfect_ tense should be used; butif there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declarethat the thing has been done, the _perfect_ tense should be employed. 

Thus, we say, "Philosophers _made_ great discoveries in the lastcentury;" "He _was_ much afflicted last year;" but when we refer to thepresent century, year, week, day, &c. We ought to use the _perfect_tense; as, "Philosophers _have made_ great discoveries in the presentcentury;" "He _has been_ much afflicted this year;" "I _have read_ thepresident's message this week;" "We _have heard_ important news thismorning;" because these events occurred in this century, this year, thisweek, and to-day, and still there remains a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action isconnected with the present time, by the actual existence either of theauthor of the work, though it may have been performed many centuriesago; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfecttense ought not to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we maysay, "They _have_, in all ages, _claimed_ great powers;" because thegeneral order of the priesthood still exists; but we cannot properlysay, "The Druid priests _have claimed_ great powers;" because that orderis now extinct. We ought, therefore, to say, "The Druid priests_claimed_ great powers. "

The following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the properuse and application of the tenses. "My brother has recently been toPhiladelphia. " It should be, "_was_ recently at Philadelphia;" becausethe adverb _recently_ refers to a time completely past, without anyallusion to the present time. "Charles is grown considerably since Ihave seen him the last time. " Corrected, "Charles _has_ grown, since I_saw_ him, " &c. "Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned forits being so long postponed. " Corrected, "for its _having been_ so longpostponed. " "They were arrived an hour before we reached thecity:"--"They _had_ arrived. "

"The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession ofit. " It should be, "will _have completed_ the building, " &c. "Thiscurious piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers formore than fifty years past:"--"_has been_ preserved, and _been_ shown tostrangers, " &c. "I had rather write than beg:"--"I _would_ rather writethan beg. "

"On the morrow, because he would have known the certainty whereof Paulwas accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands. " It ought to be, "because he _would know_; or, _being willing to know, _" &c. "The blindman said, 'Lord, that I might receive my sight;'" "If by any means Imight attain unto the resurrection of the dead. " In both these examples, _may_ would be preferable to _might_. "I feared that I should have lostthe parcel, before I arrived:"--"that I should _lose_. " "It would haveafforded me no satisfaction, if I could perform it. " It ought to be, "ifI could _have performed_ it;" or, "It _would afford_ me no satisfaction, if I _could perform_ it. " "This dedication may serve for almost any bookthat has, is, or shall be published:"--"that _has been_, or _will bepublished_. "

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood withpropriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what weexpress. 

Verbs expressive of _hope_, _desire_, _intention_, or _command_, oughtto be followed by the PRESENT tense of the _Infinitive mood_. 

"Last week I intended to _have written_, " is improper. The intention ofwriting was then _present_ with me; and, therefore, the constructionshould be, "I intended _to write_. " The following examples are alsoinaccurate; "I found him better than I expected _to have found_ him;""My purpose was, after spending ten months more in commerce, _to havewithdrawn_ my wealth to another country. " They should be, "expected _tofind_ him;" "_to withdraw_ my wealth. "

"This is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whosename it bears. " It ought to be "which proves itself _to have beenwritten_, " &c. "To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life. "Corrected, "_To have seen_ him;" or, "_To see_ him _would afford_ mepleasure, " &c. "The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all whoheard them:"--"were sufficient _to satisfy_. " "History painters wouldhave found it difficult to have invented such a species ofbeings:"--"_to invent_ such a species. "

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the _present_tense. 

Instead of saying, "He did not know that eight and twenty _were_ equalto twenty and eight;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever_was_ useful, _was_ good;" "My opponent would not believe, that virtue_was_ always advantageous. ;" The constructions should be, "_are_ equalto twenty;" "whatever _is_ useful, _is_ good;" "virtue _is_ alwaysadvantageous. "

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. 

 We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. 

 On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men. 

 The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. 

 Is it me or him who you requested to go?

 Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. 

 There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. 

 By exercising of our memories, they are improved. 

 The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed. 

 Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good. 

 The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 

 They that honor me, I will honor; and them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed. 

 I intended to have called last week, but could not. 

 The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. 

 The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. 

 I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. 

 Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. 

 The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. 

 It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. 

 I have saw him who you wrote to; and he would have came back with me, if he could. 

 Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the nature of the religion which they reject. 

 If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. 

 Education is not attended to properly in Spain. 

 He know'd it was his duty; and he ought, therefore, to do it. 

 He has little more of the great man besides the title. 

 Richard acted very independent on the occasion. 

 We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

 The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. 

 His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. 

 Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow, they will go out of themselves. 

 Those two authors have each of them their merit. 

 Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. 

 A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. 

 A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. 

 The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. 

 If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve. 

 It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow. 

 Beauty and innocence should be never separated. 

 Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope. 

 Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures. 

 Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. 

 An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

 To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian. 

 The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures: the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. 

 There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline him to offend. 

 This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. 

 They that honor me, them will I honor. 

 Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. 

 Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athenians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in Athens. 

 Thou, Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time. 

 That writer has given us an account of the manner in which Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens. 

 Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention. 

 In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America. 

 I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. 

 I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been again disappointed. 

 Five and eight makes thirteen; five from eight leaves three. 

 If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place. 

 I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. 

 The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. 

 He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy. 

 The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. 

 Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

 If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c. ?

 He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better. 

 The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. 

 * * * * *

CRITICAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

OBSERVATION 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the sacred deskand elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who regard commonsense:--"Sing the _two first_ and _three last_ verses. " Just as if therecould be more than _one_ first and _one_ last. There may be a _firsttwo_, a _second two_, &c. ; a _first three_, a _second three_, a _lastthree_. "Within the _two last_ centuries;" "The second syllable of the_three first_ words;" "The _three first_ of these orthoepists have norule by which their pronunciation is regulated:"--"the _last two_centuries;" "the _first three_ words;" "the _first three_ of theseorthoepists. "

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. "Thehigher the river, the _swifter_ it flows;" "James learns _easier_ thanJuliet; he sees _deeper_ into the millstone than she:"--"the _moreswiftly_ it flows;" "learns _more easily_; _farther_ into themillstone. " "He conducted the _boldest_ of any:"--"the _most boldly_. "

3. _More_ requires _than_ after it. The following sentences aretherefore improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, _as_Cinthio;" "Richard is more active, but not so studious, _as_ hiscompanion. " The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in theseconstructions, will show their gross impropriety: thus, "He was morebeloved _as_ Cinthio;" "Richard is more active _as_ his companion, " &c. 

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally _substitutes_ fortwo or more words belonging to other parts of speech. "Will youaccompany me to Europe next summer?" _"Yes. "_ "Do you believe that thevoyage will restore your health?" _"No. "_ In these examples, the adverbs_yes_ and _no_, are substitutes for whole sentences, and, therefore, donot qualify any words understood. _Yes_, in this instance, literallymeans, _"I will accompany you to Europe next summer;"_ and _no_, _"I donot believe that the voyage will restore my health. "_ Many other adverbsare often employed in a similar manner. 

_"Firstly, "_ is often improperly used instead of the adverb _first;_ "a_good deal_, " instead of, _much_, or, a _great deal_. 

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of _such_ and _so_. The former may be employed in expressing _quality_; the latter, inexpressing a _degree_ of the quality; as, "_Such_ a temper is seldomfound;" "_So_ bad a temper is seldom found. " In the following examples, _so_ should be used instead of _such:_ "He is _such_ an extravagantyoung man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw _such_large trees. "

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not tobe imitated. "On page _forty-five;"_ "Look at page_nineteen_;"--_forty-fifth, nineteenth_. 

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regardshould be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of ourlanguage and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been actuatedfrom the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause;" "Heshould have profited from those golden precepts;" "It is connected toJohn with the conjunction _and_;" "Aware that there is, in the minds ofmany, a strong predilection in favor of established usages;" "He wasmade much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of going;" "The rain has beenfalling of a long time;" "It is a work deserving of encouragement. "These examples may be corrected thus, "actuated _by_ the conviction;""_by_ those golden precepts;" "_by_ the conjunction and;" "predilection_for_;" "much _of_ at Argos;" "_on_ going;" "falling a long time;""deserving encouragement. "

7. The preposition _to_ is used before nouns of place, where they followverbs or participles of motion; as, "I went _to_ Washington. " But _at_is employed after the verb _to be_; as, "I have been _at_ Washington;""He has been _to_ New York, _to_ home, " &c. Are improper. Thepreposition _in_ is set before countries, cities, and large towns; "Helives _in_ France, _in_ London, _in_ Philadelphia, _in_ Rochester. " Butbefore single houses, and cities and villages which are in distantcountries, _at_ is commonly used; as, "He lives _at_ Park-place;" "Sheresides _at_ Vincennes. " People in the northern states may say, "Theylive _in_ New Orleans, or, _at_ New Orleans. "

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not beemployed as active agents. The following are solecisms: "This house tolet;" "Horses and carriages to let;" "Congress has much business toperform this session;" because the agents, _house_, _horses_ and_carriages_, and _business_, which are really _passive_, are, accordingto these constructions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, "This house to _be_ let;" "Horses and carriages to _be_ let;" "muchbusiness to _be performed_. "

9. AMBIGUITY. --"Nothing is more to be desired than wisdom. " Not_literally_ correct, for _wisdom_ is certainly more to be desired than_nothing_; but, as a figurative expression, it is well established andunexceptionable. 

"A crow is a large black bird:"--a large, _black--bird_. 

"I saw a horse--fly through the window:"--I saw a _horsefly_. 

"I saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass. " I saw, through a spy glass, a ship gliding under full sail. 

"One may see how the world goes with half an eye. " One may see with halfan eye, how the world goes. 

"A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the seashore, served me for an anchor. " This arrangement of the members andcircumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's _search to thesea shore;_ whereas, he meant, "A _large stone, which, _ after a longsearch, I happened _to find by the sea shore, _ served me for an anchor. "

"I shall only notice those called personal pronouns. " I shall notice_only_ those called personal pronouns. 

10. TAUTOLOGY. --Avoid words which add no thing to the sense; such as, "_Now_ extant, _free_ gratis, _slow_ mope, _cold_ snow, a _hot_ sun, a_flowing_ stream, a _dull_ blockhead, _wise_ sages. " "I am just going togo there;" I am _about_ to go. 

11. ABSURDITIES AND IMPROPRIETIES. --"I can learn him many things. "

It ought to be, "I can _teach_ him. " To _learn_, is to _acquire_ or_receive_ information; to _teach_, means to _communicate_ it. 

"I don't think it is so. " You _do think_, that it is _not_ so. 

_Ever, always. _ "I have ever been of this mind. " I have _always_ been. _Ever_ and _always_ are not synonymous. _Ever_ refers to _one_indefinite period of time; as, "If he _ever_ become rich:" _always_means _at all times_. 

_Excuse, pardon. _ The former signifies to release from an obligationwhich refers to the future; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crimethat is past. "Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday:" _pardon_ me. 

_Remember, recollect. _ We _remember_ a thing which we retain in ourmind; we _recollect_ it, when, though having gone from the mind, we havepower to call it back. 

_Defect, deficiency. _ A thing which is incomplete in any of its parts, is _defective;_ a total absence of the thing, is a _deficiency_. 

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. 

 * * * * *

CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 

From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, thefollowing are selected and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb'sDictionary. 

INCORRECT. CORRECT. Abridgement Abridgmentabscision abcissionachievment achievementadze addiceagriculturalist agriculturistancle ankleattornies attorneysbaise baizebason basinbass basebombazin bombasinboose bouseboult boltbuccaneer bucanierburthen burdenbye bycalimanco calamancocamblet camletcamphire camphorcanvas canvasscarcase carcasscentinel sentinelchace chasechalibeate chalybeatechamelion chameleonchimist chemistchimistry chemistrycholic colicchuse choosecimetar cimeterclench clinchcloke cloakcobler cobblerchimnies chimneyschesnut chestnutclue clewconnection connexioncorset corsletcypher ciphercyphering cipheringdactyl dactyledevelope developdipthong diphthongdispatch despatchdoat dotedrouth droughtembitter imbitterembody imbodyenquire inquireenquirer inquirerenquiry inquiryensnare insnareenterprize enterpriseenthral inthrallentrench intrenchentrenchment intrenchmententrust intrustenwrap inwrapepaulette epauletetherial etherealfaggot fagotfasset faucetfellon felonfie fygerm germegoslin goslinggimblet gimletgrey grayhalloe halloohighth heighthindrance hinderancehonied honeyedimpale empaleinclose encloseinclosure enclosureindict endictindictment endictmentindorse endorseindorsement endorsementinstructor instructerinsure ensureinsurance ensurancejudgement judgmentlaquey lackeylaste lastlicence licenseloth loathlothsome loathsomemalcontent malecontentmaneuver manoeuvremerchandize merchandisemisprison misprisionmonies moneysmonied moneyednegociate negotiatenegociation negotiationnoviciate novitiateouse oozeopake opaqueparoxism paroxysmpartizan partisanpatronize patronisephrenzy phrensypinchers pincersplow ploughponey ponypotatoe potatoquere queryrecognize recognisereindeer raindeerreinforce re-enforcerestive restiffribbon ribandrince rinsesadler saddlersallad saladsceptic skepticsceptical skepticalscepticism skepticismsegar cigarseignor seigniorserjeant sergeantshoar shoresoothe soothstaunch stanchstreight straightsuitor suitersythe scythetatler tattlerthresh thrashthwak thwacktipler tipplertranquility tranquillitytripthong triphthongtrissyllable trisyllablevalice valisevallies valleysvise vicevollies volleyswaggon wagonwarrantee warrantywhoopingcough hoopingcoughwoe woyeast yest

CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 

The following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people, as well as by the vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to_Cobb's Dictionary_, it is presumed, will be useful to many. Some of themispronunciations given are _provincial_. 

 1 2 3 4 1 4 1 4 1 3 5 6 1 4Fate, far, fall, fat--me, met--pine, pin--no, nor, not, move--tube, tub, 7 34 37bull--oil--found---_th_in--THIS. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. IMPROPER. PRONOUNCED. 4 1 4 4Again a-gane' a-gen' 4 1 4 4Against a-ganste' a-genst 4 1 4 1Ally al'le al'li' 1 2Are are ar 4 4 1 1Azure azh'ur a'zhure 1 1Bade bade bad 1 11Beard bard beerd 4 11 4Been ben or been bin 22 11Bleat blaat bleet 1 34Boil bile boil 4 4 5 4Bonnet bun'net bon'nit 2 66Brooch brotsh brootsh 4 3 4 4Canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' 4 4Catch ketsh katsh 4 1 3 1Causeway kros'wa kawz'wa 4 4 1 4Chalice kal'is tshal'is 4 1Chasten tshas'tn tshase'sn 4 1 4 1Chimney tshim'ble tshim'ne 3 1Chine tshime tshine 34 1Choir koir kwire 4 4 1 1Clevy klev'is klev've 4 4Clinch klensh klinsh 5 4 5 4Column kol'yum kol'lum 5 4 4 4Combat kom'bat kum'bat 5 1 5 4Comma kom'me kom'ma 1 4 3 4Coquet ko-kwet' ko-ket' 3 1Corps korps kore 4 4 4 4Cover kiv'ur kuv'ur 11 4Deaf deef def 1 4 4 1 1 4Decisive de-sis'iv de-si'siv 1 5 1 1Depot de'pot de-po' 4 1 1 1 1Depute dep'u-tize de-pute' 4 1 1 1 1 4Deputed dep'u-tizd de-pu'ted 1 1 1 1Design de-zine' de-sine' 4 4Dint dent dint 1 5 4Docile do'slle dos'sil 4 4 4 4Disgust dis-gust' diz-gust' 4 1 4 1Dismay dis-ma' diz-ma' 4 1 4 1Disown dis-one' diz-one' 1 4Dost dost dust 1 4Doth do_th_ du_th_ 66 4Does dooz duz 11 1Drain dreen drane 37 37Drought drou_th_ drout 37 4 37Drowned dround'ed dround 4 1 4 4Ductile duk'tile duk'til 1 4Edge aje edje 1 1 4Either i'THur e'THur 4 4 4 4English eng'lish ing'glish 1 1 1 1Era e're e'ra 1 1Ere ere are 1 4Fasten fas'tn fas'sn 4 7 11 7Fearful fer'ful feer'ful 4 4 4 1Figure fig'gur fig'ure 4 11Fiend fend feend 4 4First fust furst 34 1 1 1 1Foliage foil'aje fo'le-aje 3 4 3 1Fortune for'tshun for'tshune 3 4 3 1Fortnight fort'nit fort'nite 37 37 4Fountain foun'tn foun'tin 4 4 4 1Fracture frak'tshur frak'tshure 1 4 1 4Fragrance frag'ranse fra'granse 1 1 1 4Futile fu'tile fu'til 4 4 4 4Gather geTH'ur gaTH'ur 4 4Get git get 4 4Girth gurt ger_th_ 66 1Goal gool gole 1 1 4 1 4Going gone _or_ go'in go'ing 66 1Gold goold gold 66 4Gum goom gum 1 4 4Grudge be-gretsh' grudje 4 4 4 4Gypsum gip'sum jip'sum 4 4Has hez haz 1 4Have have hav 11 4Heard heerd herd 4 4 2Hearth hur_th_ or ha_th_ har_th_ 4 4Hiss siss hiss 1 34Hoist histe hoist 4 1 1 1Homely hum'ble home'le 4 66Hoof huf hoof 3 4 5 4Hostler haws'lur os'lur 4 4Humble hum'bl um'bl 11 4 4 4Jesting jeest'in jest'ing 4 4Kettle kit'tl ket'tl 4 4 4 1Lecture lek'tshur lek'tshure 4 4 1 1Leisure lezh'ur le'zhure 4 4 1 4Lever lev'er le'vur 4 4Lid led lid 1 5 1 4Lilach la'lok li'lak 66 1Loam loom lome 1 66Loo lu loo 1 1 4 1Maintain mane-tane' men-tane' 1 4 1 4Matron mat'run ma'trun 1 1 4 1Mermaid mare'made mer'made 37 37Mountain moun'tn moun'tin 1 4 1 1Nature na'tshur na'tshure 1 4 1 4Neither ni'THur ne'THur 1 11 1 1Oblige o-bleeje' o-blije' 1 11 5 1Oblique o-bleek' ob-like' 5 5Of of ov 1 34Oil ile oil 5 4 1 1 1Only on'le _or_ un'le one'le 1 4 4 4Panther pane'tur pan'_th_ur 4 4 1 4Parent par'ent pa'rent 2 4 2 4Partner pard'nur part'nur 2 4 4 1Pasture pas'tshur pas'tshure 4 4 1 4Patron pat'run pa'trun 4 4 4 4Pincers pinsh'urz pin'surz 4 4Pith pe_th_ pi_th_ 11 1Plait pleet plate 1 1 4Poem pome po'em 1 34Point pinte point 5 4 4Pother poTH'ur puTH'ur 4 4 1 4Precept pres'sept pre'sept 1 1 4 4Preface pre'fase pref'fas 1 1 4 1Prelude pre'lude prel'ude 1 4 5 4Process pro'ses pros'ses 1 4 5 4Product pro'dukt prod'ukt 1 4 5 4Progress pro'gres prog'res 1 1 1 11Profile pro'file pro-feel' 4 4 4 4Pumpion pungk'in pump'yun 4 7Put put (verb) put 1 34Quoit kwate kwoit 1 1 4 1Rapine ra'pine rap'in 1 11Rear rare reer 4 1 4 4Reptile rep'tile rep'til 4 4Rid red rid 1 1Rind rine rind 4 4Rinse rense rinse 5 4 5 4Rosin roz'um roz'in 87 1 66 11Routine rou tene roo-teen' 4 66Roof ruff roof 4 4 1 4Sacred sak'red sa'kred 1 4Said sade sed 4 4Sat set sat 1 4Says saze sez 2 1Scarce skarse skarse 4 1 4 1Schedule sked'ule sed'jule 4 4Shut shet shut 4 4Since sense sinse 4 11Sleek slik sleek 4 4 1 4Sliver sliv'vur sli'vur 3 7 1 7Slothful slaw_th_'ful slo_th_'ful 4 66Soot sut soot 4 4 1 2Spikenard spig'nut spike'nard 1 34Spoil spile spoil 4 4 11 2Steelyard stil'yurdz steel'yard 5 4Stamp stomp stamp 4 4Stint stent stint 1 1Sword sword sord 1 5 4 4Synod si'nod sin'ud 1 1 4 1Therefore THare'fore THer'fore 4 4Thill fil _th_il 1 66To to too 37 66Tour tour toor 4 4Treble trib'bl treb'bl 1 3 1 4Towards to-wardz' to'urdz 5 1 1 1Trophy trof'fe tro'fe 1 1 1 1Tuesday tshuz'de tuze'de 4 4 4 1Verdure vur'jur ver'jure 1 4 4 11Vizier vi'zhur viz'yeer 5 4 5 1Volume vol'lum vol'yume 1 4Were ware wer 1 1Yea ya ye 4 4Yes yes yis 11 33 4Yest yeest _or_ eest yest 4 4Yet yit yet 1 66You yu yoo 1 66Your yure yoor 1 66Youth yu_th_ yoo_th_ 1 4 1 4 1 1 1 4Ague and fever fe'vurn-a'gur a'gu-and fe'vur 3 4 1 4 4 1Alternate awl-ter'nate al-ter'nate 4 4 1 4 4 1 1Annunciate an-nun'shate an-nun'she-ate 4 1 4 4 1 4Andiron hand'i-urn and'i-urn 4 1 1 4 4 1 11Antipodes an'te-podz an-tip'o-deez 4 4 4 4 1 4Apparent ap-par'ent ap-pa'rent 2 1 4 4 2 3 4 1Architecture artsh'e-tek-tshur ar'-ke-tek-tshure 4 4 4 4 4 4Assumption as-sump'shun as-sum'shun 3 4 4 1 3 4 4 1Auxiliary awks-il'a-re awg-zil'ya-re 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1Certiorari sash-ur-ar'ur ser-she-o-ra'ri 4 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1Christianity kris-tshan'e-te kris-tshe-an'e-te 4 4 1 4 4 4Clandestine klan-des'tine klan-des'tin 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4Coadjutor ko-ad'ju-tur ko-ad-ju'tur 5 4 1 4 5 4 1 4Compendium kom-pen'de-um kom-pen'je-um 5 4 1 1 4 1Connoisseur kon-nis-sure' ko-nes-sare' 1 1 4 4 1 4Courteous kore'te-us kur'tshe-us 4 4 4 4 4 4Coverlet kuv'ur-lid kuv'ur-let 37 4 1 37 4 4Cowardice kou'urd-ise kou'urd-is 1 4 4 1 4 4Decrepit de-krip'id de-krep'it 4 5 1 1 5 1Demonstrate dem'on-strate de-mon'strate 1 4 4 4 4 1 4 1 1 4Desideratum de-sid-er-at'um de-sid-e-ra'tum 1 4 1 1 4Diamond di'mund di'a-mund 4 4 4 1 4 1 4Discrepance dis-krep'an-se dis'kre-panse 4 4 1 4 4 4Disfranchise dis-fran'tschize dis-fran'tschiz 4 5 4 4 5 4Dishonest dis-on'est diz-on'est 4 3 4 4 3 4Disorder dis-or'dur diz-or'dur 1 4 4 1 1 4 1 1Electrify e-lek'tur-ize e-lek'tre-fi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Emaciate e-ma'shate e-ma'she-ate 4 1 1 4 1 1 1Expatiate eks-pa'shate eks-pa'she-ate 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1Expiatory eks-pi'a-to-re eks'pe-a-tur-re 4 4 1 4 4 1 1Extempore eks-tem'pore eks-tem'po-re 4 1 1 4 1 4Feminine fem'e-nine fem'e-nin 4 4 1 1 4 1Frequently frek'went-le fre'kwent-le 4 1 1 4 1 4Genuine jen'u-ine jen'u-in 2 11 2 1 4Guardian gar-deen' gyar'de-an 4 4 4 4 4 4Gymnastic gim-nas'tik jim-nas'tik 4 1 1 4 4 1 66 4Hallelujah hal-le-lu'ja hal-le-loo'ya 5 4 4 5 3 4Hospital hos'pit-al os'pe-tal 1 4 4 1 4 4Humorous hu'mur-us yu'mur-us 1 1 1 1 4Idea i-de' i-de'a 4 1 4 4 4 1 3 4Ignoramus ig-no-ram'us ig-no-ra'mus 4 4 1 4 4 1 1 4Indecorous in-dek'o-rus in-de-ko'rus 4 4 1 1 4 1 1 1Irradiate ir-rad'e-ate ir-ra'de-ate 4 4 4 1 4 4 1 1Literati lit-er-at'i lit-er-a'ti 1 1 4 4 1 4Maintenance mane-tane'anse men-'te-nanse 4 1 1 4 1 4Masculine mas'ku-line mas'ku-lin 4 4 1 mur'kan-tile } 4 4 11 } 4 4 4Mercantile mur-kan-teel'} mer'kan-til 4 4 4 } mur-kan'til } 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Meliorate me-li'o-rate me'le-o-rate 1 4 1 4 5 4 1 4Molestation mo-les-ta'shun mol-es-ta'shun 1 1 4 1 1 4Museum mu'ze-um mu-ze'um 1 4 4 4 4 4National na'shun-al nash'un-al 1 4 4 1 5 4 1 1Nomenclature no-men'kla-ture nom-en-kla'tshure 5 1 4 5 1 4 4Nominative nom'e-tiv nom'e-na-tiv 5 5 1 4 5 4 4 4Obstreperous ob-strop'pu-lus ob-strep'er-us 5 2 1 5 1 1Octavo ok-ta'vo ok-ta'vo 5 1 1 1 5 4 4 1Oratory or'a-to-re or'a-tur-re 1 4 1 4 4 1Parentage pa'rent-aje par'ent-aje 2 4 1 1 2 1 4 1 1Partiality par-shal'le-te par-she-al'le-te 1 4 1 4 4 4Patronage pa'trun-aje pat'run-ije 4 1 2 1 1 2Patriarch pat're-ark pa'tre-ark 4 1 4 1 1 4Patriot pat're-ut pa'tre-ut 4 1 4 4 1 1 4 4Patriotism pat're-ut-izm pa'tre-ut-izm 1 5 1 4 1 5 1 4Philologist fi-lol'lo-jist fe-lol'lo-jist 1 5 1 1 1 5 1 1Philosophy fi-los'o-fe fe-los'o-fe 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 5 1 4Philosophical fi-lo-sof'ik-al fil-o-zof'e-kal 1 4 4 1 4 4Plagiarism pla'ga-rizm pla'ja-rizm 5 4 5 4Possess pos-ses' poz-zes' 5 4 1 5 4 1Possessive pos-ses'siv poz-zes'siv 5 4 4 5 4 4Possession pos-sesh'un poz-zesh'un 1 4 4 4 1 4 4Preventive pre-vent'a-tiv pre-vent'iv 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4Pronunciation pro-nun-se-a'shun pro-nun-she-a'shun 1 4 1 1 4 1 4 1 1 4Propitiation pro-pis-e-a'shun pro-pish-e-a'shun 5 1 1 5 1 1Prophecy prov'e-si (noun) prof'e-se (noun) 5 1 1 5 1 5Prophesy prov'e-si (verb) prof'e-si (verb) 1 1 1 1 1Ratio ra'sho ra'she-o 1 4 4 4 4 4Rational ra'shun-al rash'un-al 1 4 4 1 4 4Sacrament sa'kra-ment sak'ra-ment 1 1 1 4 1 1Sacrifice sa'kre-fize, sak're-fize 4 _or_ (fis) 4 1 1 1 1 1 1Stereotype ster'o-tipe ste're-o-tipe 1 4 1 4 1 4 4Stupendous stu-pen'du-us, stu-pen'dus 1 4 stu-pen'jus 1 5 1 1 4 1 4Synonyme se-non'e-me sin'o-nim 4 4 4 4 1 4Transparent trans-par'ent trans-pa'rent 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 1Transparency trans-par'en-se trans-pa'ren-se 1 4 1 4 1 4 4Tremendous tre-men'du-us, tre-men'dus 1 4 1 tre-men'jus 4 4 4 4 1 4Verbatim ver-bat'im ver-ba'tim 5 2 1 5 1 1Volcano vol-ka'no vol-ka'no 4 1 4 11Whiffletree hwip'pl-tre hwif'fl-tree

 NOTE 1. --When the words _learned_, _blessed_, _loved, _ &c. Are used as participial adjectives, the termination _ed_ should generally be pronounced as a separate syllable; as, "A _learn-ed_ man; The _bless-ed_ Redeemer;" but when they are employed as verbs, the _ed_ is contracted in pronunciation; as, "He _learn'd_ his lesson; They are _lov'd;_ I have _walk'd_. "

 2. The accent of the following words falls on those syllables expressed in the _italic_ characters: Eu ro _pe_ an, hy me _ne_ al, Ce sa _re_ a, co ad _ju_ tor, ep i cu _re_ an, _in_ ter est ed, _in_ ter est ing, _rep_ a ra ble, _rec_ og nise, _leg_ is la ture, _ob_ li ga to ry, in _com_ pa ra ble, ir _rep_ a ra ble, in _ex_ o ra ble. In a large class of words, the vowels _a_, _e_, and _ai_, should be pronounced like long _a_ in _late_; such as, _fare_, _rare_, _there_, _their_, _where_, _air_, _chair_, _compare_, _declare_, &c. In the words _person_, _perfect_, _mercy_, _interpret_, _determine_, and the like, the vowel _e_ before _r_, is often _erroneously_ sounded like short _u_. Its proper sound is that of _e_ in _met_, _pet_, _imperative_. 

 3. With respect to the pronunciation of the words _sky_, _kind_, _guide_, &c. It appears that a mistake extensively prevails. It is believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar, is the _correct_ one, and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by Mr. John Walker. The proper diphthongal sounds 11 1 1 in skei, kyind, gyide, are adopted by the common mass, and _perverted_ by those who, in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these words, say, 1 1 1 1 1 1 ske-i; ke-inde, ge-ide. This latter mode of pronouncing them in two syllables, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words _boil_, _toil_, in two 3 4 3 4 syllables; thus, bo-il, to-il. 

4. _My_, _wind_. When _my_ is contrasted with _thy_, _his_, _her_, _your_, 1 1&c, it is pronounced, mi: in all other situations, it is pronounced, me;as, "_My [me]_ son, give ear to _my [me]_ counsel. " When _wind_ ends aline in poetry, and is made to rhyme with _mind_, _bind_, kind_, &c. It is 1 4pronounced, wind; but, in other situations, it is pronounced, wind. 

 "Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the _wind_. "

PROVINCIALISMS. 

CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES. 

As each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its localityin some one section or other of our country, it is hoped that thesecorrections will be found useful in the districts to which the variousphrases respectively belong. 

IMPROPER. CORRECT. 

Aint Are nothaint have nottaint 'tis nothaint are notmaint may notwont will notwer'nt were notwaunt was notwoodent would notmussent must notizzent is notwazzent was nothezzent has notdoozzent does nottizzent 'tis notwhool who will don't can't i'll 'tis

COMMON IN NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK. 

 4Akst askt 4 4ben bin 4 2hul hole 4 1hum home 4 1stun stone 66 4dooz duz 2 4glass glass 2 4mass mass 2 4brass brass 2 4pass pass 3 2flawnt flant 4 4hiz'zn hiz 37 37 4hou'zn houz'iz1 4 1 4an'shent ane'tshent1 4 1 1an'jel ane'jel 4 4 1 4dan'jur dane'jur 4 4 1 4stran'jur strane'jur 2 4 1 4tscham'bur tshame'bur 1 4 1 1na'tur na'tshure 4 4 4 4 1 4nat'ur-el natsh'u-ral 3 4 3 1for'tin for'tshune 3 1 1 3 1 1for'tew-nate for'tshu-nate 4 1 4 1vur'tew ver'tshu 4 1 4 4 1 4vur'tew-us ver'tshu-us1 1 4 4 1 4ak'tew-el ak'tschu-al4 1 1 4 1 1ed'ew-kate ed'ju-kate 4 4 2 4faTH'ur fa'THurheft weightstoop porchstent taskhelve handlemuss disorderdump unloadscup swingshay gig or chaisecutter one-horse sleighstaddle saplingfoxy reddishsuple spry or supple

IN PENNSYLVANIA. 

Strenth strengthlenth lengthbrenth breadthort oughtnan whatwisht wishwunst onceouch ohcheer chairspook ghostfurnentz oppositewanity vanityin wain in vainornary ordinaryfor by to sparewe bit small piecedisremember do not remember

IRISH. 

 66 1Door dore 66 1floor flore5 4ond and 5 55loss looz 66 1koorse korse 66 1soorse sorse 4 66till too 4 7put put 4 7fut fut4 66 4 54a-koont' ak-kount' 4 4 7 4pul'pit pul'pit 1 4 3pare'sun par'sn

IMPROPER. CORRECT. 

MD. VA. KY. MISS. &c. 

 2 1THar THare 2 1whar hware 2 1bar [bear] bare 2 4war wer 37 1mout mite [might] 1 1 4gwine go'ing 4 4 4shet or shut rid 1 5 1 1 4 4tote or fotch kar're, fetsh, or bring 1 4hop'd helpt 4 66 2 4 4ca-hoot' part'nur-ship 3 66 5mar'bl moov off

 NOTE, _Clever_, _pretty_, _ugly_, _curious_, _expect_, _guess_, and _reckon_, though correct English words, have, among the common people of New England and New York, a provincial application and meaning. With them, a _clever_ man, is one of a gentle and obliging disposition; instead of, a man of distinguished talents and profound acquirements. _Pretty_ and _ugly_, they apply to the _disposition_ of a person, instead of, to his _external appearance_. In these states, one will often hear, "I _guess_ it rains, " when the speaker _knows_ this to be a fact, and, therefore, _guessing_ is uncalled for. "I _expect_ I can go;" or, "I _reckon_ I can;" instead of, "I _suppose_ or _presume_. " In New England, a clergyman is often called a _minister_, in New York, a _priest_, and south of N. Y. A _parson_. The last is preferable. 

NEW ENGLAND OR NEW YORK. CORRECTED. I be goin. He lives to hum. I _am_ going. He lives _at_ home. 

Hese ben to hum this two weeks. _He has been at home these_ 2 weeks. 

You haddent ought to do it. Yes You ought _not_ to do it. Had ought. _Certainly_ I ought. 

Taint no better than hizzen. _'Tis_ no better than _his_. 

Izzent that are line writ well? _Is not_ that line well _written_?

Tizzent no better than this ere. _It is_ no better, or it is _not any_ better than his. 

The keows be gone to hum, neow, The _cows are_ gone _home_, andand I'mer goin arter um. _I am going after them_. 

He'll be here, derights, and, bring He _will_ here, directly, and bringyourn and thairn. Yours and theirs. 

He touched the stun which I shew He touched the _stone_ which Ihim, an di guess it made him sithe, _showed_ him and it made himfor twas cissing hot. _sigh_, for _it was hissing_ hot. 

Run, Thanel, and cut a staddle, for Go, Nathaniel, and cut a _sapling_, to make a lever on. Ize jest agoneter to make a _lever of_. I _was about_go, daddy. To go, or _intending_ to go _immediately_, father. 

Where shell I dump my cart, square? Where _shall_ I _unload_ my cart?Dump it yender. Whats the heft of _Yonder_. _What is_ the _weight_your load? of your load?

When ju git hum from Hafford? When _did you return fromA fortnit ago. You diddent, did ye? Hartford_? A _fortnight_ ago. _ItJu see my Danel, whose sot up a is possible! Did_you see my _sontarvern there? No. Hede gone afore Daniel, who has opened a publicI got there. O, the pesky criter! house_ there? No. _He had leftHele soon be up a stump. Before_ I _arrived_ there. O, the _paltry fellow! He will_ soon _come to naught. _

My frinds supurb mansion is _My friend's_ superb mansion isdelightfully sitewated on a nate-eral delightfully _situated_ on amound of considerable hithe. It hez _natural_ mound of considerablea long stoop in front; but it is furder _height_. It _has_ a long _porch_from the city than I'de like my hum. In front; but it is _farther_ from the city than _I would_ like to _reside_. 

I know'd the gal was drownded, and I _knew_ the _girl had beenI tell'd the inquisitdoners, that ize drowned_, and I _told_ the _jurynither geestin nor jokin about it; but of inquest_, that _I was_if they'd permit me to give em my _not jesting_ about it; but, _byideze, they'd obleege me. So I permitting_ me to _give them_ myparsevered, and carried my pinte. You _view of the subject_, they _woulddon't say so. Be you from Barkshire? oblige_ me. So, I _persevered_, I be. Neow I swan! if I aint clean and _gained_ my _point. Indeed!beat. Are_ you from _Berkshire_? I _am. Really_!I _am surprised_. 

You baint from the Jarseys, be ye? _Are_ you from _New Jersey_? Yes, Yes. Gosh! then I guess you kneow Then I _presume_ you _know how_heow to tend tarvern. To tend _a tavern_. 

IN PENNSYLVANIA. CORRECTED

I seen him. Have you saw him I _saw_ him. Have you _seen_ him?Yes, I have saw him wunst; and that Yes, _once_; and that was beforewas before you seed him. You _saw_ him. 

I done my task. Have you did I _have_ done my task. Have youyours? No, but I be to do it. _done_ yours? No, but I _must_. 

I be to be there. He know'd me. I _shall_ be there; or, I _must_ be there. He _knew_ me. 

Leave me be, for Ime afear'd. _Let_ me be, for I _am afraid_. 

I never took notice to it. I never took notice _of_ it: or, better thus, I never _noticed_ it. 

I wish I haddent did it; howsumever, I wish I _had not done_ it:I don't keer: they cant skeer me. _however, I disregard them_. They _cannot scare_ me. 

Give me them there books. Give me _those_ books. 

He ort to go; so he ort. He _ought_ to go, _really_. 

No he orten. He _ought_ not. 

Dont scrouge me. Don't _crowd_ me. 

I diddent go to do it. I _did not intend_ to do it. 

Aint that a good hand write? _Is not_ that _beautiful writing_?

Nan? I know'd what he meant, but _What_? I _knew_ what he meant, butI never let on. I _kept that to myself_. 

It is a long mile to town. Ah! I It is a _little over_ a mile tothought 'twas unle a short mile. Town. Ah! I _supposed it to be less than_ a mile. 

IRISH. CORRECTED. 

Not here the day; he went till _He is_ not here to-day. He wentPittsburg. _to_ Pittsburg. 

Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. Let us _parse_ a _little_. 

Where did you loss it? Where did you _lose_ it?

MD. VA. KY. OR MISS. CORRECTED. 

Carry the horse to water. _Lead_ the horse to water; or, water the horse. 

Tote the wood to the river. _Carry_ the wood to the river. 

Have you focht the water? Have you _fetched_, or _brought_, the water?

I've made 200 bushels of corn this I _have raised_ 200 bushels of cornyear. This year. 

He has run against a snag. He has _got into difficulty_. 

Is that your plunder, stranger? Is that your _baggage, sir_?

He will soon come of that habit. He will soon _overcome_, or _get rid of_, that habit. 

I war thar, and I seen his boat was I _was there_, and I _saw that_ hisloadend too heavy. Boat was too _heavily laden_, or _loaded_. 

Whar you gwine. _Where are_ you _going_?

Hese in cohoot with me. _He is_ in _partnership_ with me. 

Did you get shet of your tobacca? Did you _get rid_, or _dispose_ of, your _tobacco_?

Who hoped you to sell it? Who _helped_ you to sell it?

PROSODY. 

PROSODY treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usagesof the language we speak, and the sentiments we wish to express: hence, in its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of elocution. 

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts: the first teaches the truepronunciation of words, comprising _accent_, _quantity_, _emphasis_, _pause_, and _tone_; and the second, the laws of _versification_. 

_Accent_. Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on aparticular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heardthan the rest, or distinguished from them; as, in the word _presúme_, the stress of the voice must be on the letter _u_ and the secondsyllable, _sume_, which syllable takes the accent. 

Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syllable. Forthe sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, we frequently give asecondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes theprincipal accent; as, _'tes ti mo' ni'al_, _a ban'don 'ing. _

_Quantity_. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupiedin pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel; whichcauses it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the followingletters; as, "Fāll, bāle, mōōd, hōūse, fēature. "

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant; which causesthe vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; "as, ănt, bŏnnĕt, hŭngĕr. "

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one inpronouncing it; thus, "māte" and "nōte" should be pronounced asslowly again as "măt" and "nŏt. "

_Emphasis_. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of thevoice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design tolay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of thesentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by aparticular tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of Elocution. 

_Pauses_. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a totalcessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, ameasurable space of time. 

_Tones_. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; consistingin the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of soundwhich we employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases; but tones affectsentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. 

PUNCTUATION. 

PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written composition into sentences orparts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to mark the differentpauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The _Comma_ represents the shortest pause; the _Semicolon_, a pausedouble that of the comma; the _Colon_, double that of the semicolon; andthe _Period_, double that of the colon. 

Punctuation is a modern art. The ancients were entirely unacquaintedwith the use of points; and wrote, not only without any distinction ofmembers and periods, but also without any distinction of words. Thiscustom continued till the year 360 before Christ. How the ancients readtheir works, written in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. Afterthe practice of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinctionwere placed at the end of every word. This practice continued aconsiderable time. 

As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place whilemanuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods ofconveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced with theart of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual: all the pointsdid not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are nowused, became established, when learning and refinement had madeconsiderable progress. 

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammaticalconstruction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the partof the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit ofexceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literarytaste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justlymerit our particular attention. 

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, isestablished by the single fact, that _the meaning of a sentence is oftentotally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points_. Toillustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous example might beselected. The following border on the ridiculous: "Mr. Jared Hurtonhaving gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church:""Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 22 years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned upabout six feet high, &c. " Corrected; "Mr. Jared Hurton having gone tosea, his wife desires the prayers of this church;" "thin visage, with ashort nose turned up, about six feet high, &c. "

Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary for himto understand what is meant by an _adjunct_, _a simple sentence_, and a_compound sentence_. 

An _adjunct_ or _imperfect phrase_ contains no assertion, or does notamount to a proposition or sentence; as, "Therefore;" "studious ofpraise;" "in the pursuit of commerce. "--For the definition of asentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119. 

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the samemanner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the sentence iscompound, and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there areadjuncts; as, "They have sacrificed their _health_ and _fortune_, at the_shrine_ of vanity, _pride_, and _extravagance_. " But when the adjunctsare connected with the verb in a different manner, the sentence issimple; as, "Grass of an excellent _quality_, is produced in great_abundance_ in the northern regions of our country. "

COMMA. 

RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in general, beseparated by a comma; as, "Every part of matter swarms with livingcreatures. "

_Exercises in Punctuation_. --Idleness is the great fomenter of allcorruptions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half hisway to virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative isaccompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may admit acomma immediately before the verb; as, "The good taste _of the presentage_, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the Englishlanguage;" "Too many _of the pretended friendships of youth_, are merecombinations in pleasure. "

_Exercises_. --The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introductionto future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is areal defect in character. The intermixture of evil in human societyserves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the adjunct must bedistinguished by a comma before and after it; as, "His work is, _in manyrespects, _ very imperfect. It is, _therefore, _ not much approved. " Butwhen these interruptions are slight and unimportant, it is better toomit the comma; as, "Flattery is _certainly_ pernicious;" "There is_surely_ a pleasure in beneficence. "

_Exercises_. --Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentlenessis in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have yourfailings. Humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride andignorance under costly attire. The best men often experiencedisappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumedbehavior can always hide the real character. 

RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in apposition whenaccompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished by commas; as, "My_son_, give me thy heart;" "Dear _Sir_, I write to express my gratitudefor your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my _friends_, for yourmany favors;" "_Paul_, the _apostle_, of the Gentiles, was eminent forhis zeal and knowledge;" "The _butterfly_, _child_ of the summer, flutters in the sun. "

But if _two_ nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or ifthey form only a proper name, they should not be separated; as, _"Paul_the _apostle_, suffered martyrdom;" "The _statesman Jefferson_, wrotethe declaration of Independence. "

_Exercises_. --Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in allgenerations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand ofvengeance? Death the king of terrors chose a prime minister. Hope thebalm of life sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius the greatChinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise. The patriarchJoseph is an illustrious example of true piety. 

RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolutewith their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simplesentence, must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; as, "_His father dying_, he succeeded to the estate;" "_To confess thetruth_, I was in fault;" "The king, _approving the plan_, put it inexecution;" "He, _having finished his academical course_, has returnedhome, _to prosecute his professional studies_. "

_Exercises_. --Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. Toenjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. Histalents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering himconspicuous. The path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm andconstant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind composeone family assembled under the eye of one common Father. 

RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placingcommas between its members; as, "The decay, the waste, and thedissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train ofserious reflections. "

Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be separated bycommas; as, "The husband, wife, [11] and children, [12] suffered extremely;""In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;""David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A man, fearing, serving, andloving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose;" "Success generallydepends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what weundertake. "

[11] The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be soobvious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any _writer_, possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it. Iam bold to affirm, that it is observed by every correct reader andspeaker; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violatedby those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who areinfluenced by their pernicious example; thus, "The head, the heartand the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doinggood. " Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction isunderstood? It would be doing no greater violence to the principlesof elocution; thus, "The head the heart and the hands, should be, &c. " or thus, "The head the heart, and the hands, should beemployed, " &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, wherethe conjunction is expressed, is as necessary as the former, wherethe conjunction is understood? And, since this is the case, whatfair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation?"The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly andactively employed in doing good;" "She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious. "

[12] As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary betweenthe last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it;but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and thenoun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in suchinstances, is properly omitted; thus, "David was a brave, wise, and_pious_ man. "

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurringin the same construction, with their conjunctions understood, must beseparated by commas; as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim;" "Virtuesupports in adversity, moderates in prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering;" "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed. "

_Exercises. _--We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of themutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses theunderstanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades manfrom his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many ayouth. He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elderbrother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon andesteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and truelovely honest and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinkingare the indispensable qualifications of a good student. The greatbusiness of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy andtalking humbly with our Creator. To live soberly righteously and piouslycomprehends the whole of our duty. 

In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes ofdecay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idletrifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappyperson had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain. 

RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentencesconnected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents isrestricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated bya comma; as, "Wisdom is better than riches;" "No preacher is sosuccessful as thee;" "He accepted _what_ I had rejected;" "Self-denialis the _sacrifice which_ virtue must make;" "Subtract from many modernpoets _all that_ may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;""Give it to the _man whom_ you most esteem. " In this last example, theassertion is not of "man in general, " but of "the man whom you mostesteem. "

But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properlyinserted before the relative; as, "_Man_, _who_ is born of a woman, is offew days and full of trouble;" "There is no _charm_ in the female sex, _which_ can supply the place of virtue. "

This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relativeis understood; as, "Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is, "privileges _which_ you enjoy. "

_Exercises. _--How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! Thefriendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incurcensure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the mostinnocent words that can be put together. Many of the evils whichoccasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object inits just proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffectedcivility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparablecharm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we sawyesterday. 

RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunctionexpressed, they must not be separated; as, "Libertines call religion, bigotry _or_ superstition;" "True worth is modest _and_ retired;" "Thestudy of natural history, expands _and_ elevates the mind;" "Some mensin deliberately and presumptuously. " When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated; as, "There is a natural differencebetween merit _and_ demerit, virtue _and_ vice, wisdom _and_ folly;""Whether we eat _or_ drink, labor _or_ sleep, we should be temperate. "

But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may beseparated by a comma; as, "Romances may be said to be miserablerhapsodies, _or_ dangerous incentives to evil. "

_Exercises_. --Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. True friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all theundoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artlesssimple and sincere uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys thestrength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. 

RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, insome instances, be inserted; as, "From law arises security; fromsecurity, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge. " But in others, it isbetter to omit the comma; "No station is so high, no power so great, nocharacter so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks ofrashness, malice, and envy. "

_Exercises_. --As a companion he was severe and satirical; as a friendcaptious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summerthere will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifledaway without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old agemiserable. 

RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma isgenerally omitted; as, "I suppose _he is at rest_;" changed, "I suppose_him to be at rest_. "

But when the verb _to be_ is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb_to be_ is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma; as, "Themost obvious remedy is, _to withdraw from all associations with badmen_;" "The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, towithdraw from all associations with bad men. "

_Exercises. _--They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was theman. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemnedby our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to becondemned by our own hearts. 

NOTES. 

 1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the member to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a comma at each extremity; as, "They set out early, _and_, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place. " This rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers; as, "If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee; _but_ if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever;" "_But_ if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted. "

 2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and having a common dependance, may be divided by commas; as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments. "

 3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the form of a quotation, may be properly marked with a comma; as, "It hurts a man's pride to say, _I do not know_;" "Plutarch calls lying, _the vice of slaves_. "

 4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with some marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma; as, "Tho' _deep_, yet _clear_; tho' _gentle_, yet not _dull_; _Strong_, without _rage_; without _o'erflowing_, _full_. "

 "Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in union _with_, but in opposition _to_, the views and conduct of each other. "

 Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is single, the comma may be omitted; as, "Many states were in alliance _with_, and under the protection _of_ Rome. "

 The same rule and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition; as, "He was composed both under the _threatening_, and at the _approach_, _of_ a cruel and lingering death;" "He was not only the _king_, but _the father of_ his people. "

 5. The words, "as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, " and all other words and phrases of a similar kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma; _as_, "Remember thy best friend; _formerly_, the supporter of thy infancy; _now_, the guardian of thy youth;" "He feared want; _hence_, he overvalued riches;" "_So_, if youth be trifled away, " &c. "_Again_, we must, have food and clothing;" "_Finally_, let us conclude. "

The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, tosuggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place forinserting the comma; but in applying these rules, great regard must bepaid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion whichthey bear to one another. 

SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or moreparts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which aredistinguished by a colon. 

RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itselfgive complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimeswhen the sense of that member would be complete without the concludingone, the semicolon is used; as in the following examples: "As the desireof approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiablepart of our species; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it isgoverned by vanity and folly;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains hisown approbation; the fool, when he gains the applause of those aroundhim;" "Straws swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom. "

_Exercises_. --The path of truth is a plain and safe path that offalsehood a perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness andfriendship hell of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldlyhappiness which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery asthere are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so thereis a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness. 

 But all subsists by elemental strife And passions are the elements of life. 

RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule orproposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction _as;_ asin the following instance: Prepositions govern the objective case; as, "She gave the book _to_ him. "

 NOTE. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuists employ the colon, instead of the semicolon. 

COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more partsless connected than those which are separated by a semicolon;but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followedby some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, thecolon may be properly employed; as, "Nature felt her inability toextricate herself from the consequences of guilt: the gospel revealedthe plan of divine interposition and aid. " "Great works are performed, not by strength, but by perseverance: yonder palace was raised by singlestones; yet you see its height and spaciousness. "

_Exercises. _--The three great enemies to tranquillity are vicesuperstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind withbad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idlenesswhich loads it with tediousness and disgust. 

When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we beholdthere? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presentsitself. 

RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a stillgreater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting orconcluding sentiment, the colon should be applied; as, "A divinelegislator, uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetualrest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrathawaiting the wicked: these are the considerations which overawe theworld, which support integrity, and check guilt. "

PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connectedwith the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close;as, "Fear God. " "Honor the patriot. " "Respect virtue. "

In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of practice amongour best writers and grammarians. Compound sentences connected byconjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period; as, "Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government tokeep them within a due and limited province. _But_ such as are of anirregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banishedfrom every well-regulated mind. "

The period should follow every abbreviated word; as, "A. D. N. B. U. S. Va. Md. Viz. Col. Mr. "

DASH. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks offabruptly; where a significant pause is required; or where there is anunexpected turn in the sentiment; as, "If thou art he, so much respectedonce--but, oh! how fallen! how degraded!" "If acting conformably to thewill of our Creator;--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us;--ifsecuring our own happiness;--are objects of the highest moment: then weare loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests ofreligion and virtue. "

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than ifthe stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a pause of suchlength as the sense only can determine. 

 "Here lies the great--False marble, where? "Nothing but sordid dust lies here. "

INTERROGATORY POINT. 

The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogativesentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty?"

 NOTE. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where it is only said, that a question has been asked; as, "The Cyprians asked me, why I wept. "

EXCLAMATORY POINT. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. And sometimes to invocations and addresses;as, "How much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "What is more amiable thanvirtue!" "My friend! this conduct amazes me!" "Hear me, O Lord! for thyloving kindness is great!"

PARENTHESIS. 

A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may beomitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, "To gain aposthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a namebesides?) from oblivion. "

 "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know, ) "Virtue alone is happiness below. "

 NOTE. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point, the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. It ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it; as "He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship, ) who is not jealous when, he has partners of love. "

 "Or why so long (in life if long can be) "Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me?"

Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form anexception to this rule; as, "If I grant his request, (and who couldrefuse it?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment. "

APOSTROPHE AND QUOTATION. 

The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark thepossessive case of a noun; as, "_'tis_, for _it is_; _tho, '_ for_though_; _o'er_, for _over_;" "A _man's_ poverty. "

A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language; as, "The proper study of mankind is man. "

When an author represents a person as speaking, the language of thatperson should be designated by a quotation; as, At my coming in, hesaid, "You and the physician are come too late. " A quotation containedwithin another, should be distinguished by two _single_ commas; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim 'Know thyself. '"

DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It is proper to begin with a capital, 1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &c. ; as, "James, Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron;" "God, Jehovah, the Almighty the SupremeBeing, Providence, the Holy Spirit. "

3. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, nounswhich are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun _I_ and theinterjection _O_, and every line in poetry; as, "American, Grecian, English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Poems; I write; Hear, O earth!"

APPENDIX. 

VERSIFICATION. 

POETRY is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. 

VERSIFICATION, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a particularnumber and variety of accented and unaccented syllables, according toparticular laws. 

RHYME is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in oneline, to the sound of the last syllable in another; as, "O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue _sea_, "Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as _free_. "

BLANK VERSE consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers, but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines whichconstitutes rhyme. 

POETICAL FEET consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of anumber of accented and unaccented syllables. 

They are called _feet_, because it is by their aid that the voice, as itwere, _steps_ along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables; and arereducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, asfollows:

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. A Trochee - u A Dactyle - u uAn Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - uA Spondee - - An Anapaest u u -A Pyrrhic u u A Tribrach u u u

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented; as, Hātefŭl, péttish:

Rēstlĕss mōrtăls tōil fŏr nāught. 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented; as, Bĕtrāy, consíst:

Thĕ sēas shăll wāste, thĕ skīes ĭn smōke dĕcāy. 

A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latterunaccented; as, Lābŏrĕr, póssible:

Frōm thĕ lŏw plēasŭres ŏf thīs făllĕn nātŭre. 

An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the lastaccented; as, Cŏntrăvēne, acquiésce:

ăt thĕ clōse ŏf thĕ dāy whĕn thĕ hāmlĕt ĭs stīll. 

A Spondee; as, The pāle mōōn: a Pyrrhic; as, ŏn thĕ talltree: an Amphibrach; as, Dēlightfūl: a Tribrach; as, Numērăblĕ. 

RHETORIC. 

GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly. 

RHETORIC teaches us to express them with force and elegance. 

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words inconstructing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice ofwords, of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their mostadvantageous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the variouskinds and qualities of composition. The principles of rhetoric areprincipally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science ofgrammar. Hence, an acquaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with theliberal arts, is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric andbelles-lettres. 

COMPOSITION. 

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that _good sense_ isthe foundation of all good writing. One who understands a subject well, will scarcely write ill upon it. 

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union ofgood sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, herprovince to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant andappropriate language, vivid imagery, and an agreeable variety ofexpression. It ought to be his aim, "To mark the point where sense and dulness meet. "

STYLE. --PERSPICUITY AND PRECISION. 

STYLE is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions bymeans of language. It is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds, and of the order in which they are produced. 

The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads. _perspicuity_ and _ornament_. 

PERSPICUITY, which is considered the fundamental quality of a goodstyle, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases; and, secondly, to the construction of sentences. When considered with respectto words and phrases, it requires these three qualities, _purity_, _propriety, _ and _precision. _

_Purity_ of language consists in the use of such words and suchconstructions as belong to the language which we speak, in opposition towords and phrases belonging to other languages, or which are obsolete ornew-coined, or employed without proper authority. 

_Propriety_ is the choice of those words which the best usage hasappropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. It impliestheir correct and judicious application, in opposition to lowexpressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant ofthe ideas which we wish to convey. It is the union of purity andpropriety, which renders style graceful and perspicuous. 

_Precision_, from _præcidere_, to cut off, signifies retrenching allsuperfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibitneither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to beconveyed. 

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in everyspecies of composition, that we cannot be too strict or minute in ourattention to it. 

Elegance of style requires us generally to _avoid_, many short or longsentences in succession; a monotonous correspondence of one member toanother; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with along sentence. 

The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are _Unity_, _Clearness_, _Strength_, and _Harmony_. 

UNITY is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A sentenceimplies an arrangement of words in which only _one_ proposition isexpressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts; but these parts ought to beso closely bound together, as to make on the mind the impression, not ofmany objects, but of only one. In order to preserve this unity, thefollowing rules may be useful. 

1. _In the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as littleas possible. _ In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, if possible, ought to be continued so from the beginning to theend of it. The following sentence is not constructed according to thisrule: "After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I wassaluted by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness. "In this sentence, though the objects are sufficiently connected, yet, byshifting so frequently the place and the person, the _vessel_, the_shore_, _we_, _they_, _I_ and _who_, they appear in so disunited aview, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence isrestored to its proper unity by constructing it thus: "Having come toanchor, I was put on shore, where I was saluted by all my friends, whoreceived me with the greatest kindness. "

2. _Never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. _ Theviolation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it issafer to err rather by too many short sentences, than by one that isoverloaded and confused. 

3. _Avoid all unnecessary parentheses_. 

CLEARNESS. _Ambiguity_, which is opposed to clearness, may arise from abad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. 

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that _those words ormembers most nearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near toeach other as possible, so as thereby to make their mutual relationclearly appear. _ This rule ought to be observed, 1. _In the position of adverbs. _ "By greatness, " says Mr. Addison, "I donot only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of awhole view. " The improper situation of the adverb _only_, in thissentence, renders it a limitation of the verb _mean_, whereas the authorintended to have it qualify the phrase, _a single object;_ thus, "Bygreatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object _only_, but thelargeness of a whole view. "

2. _In the position of phrases and members. _ "Are these designs whichany man who is born a Briton, in any circumstances, in any situation, ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow?" Corrected: "Are these designswhich any man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, _inany circumstances_, _in any situation_, to avow?"

3. _In the position of pronouns. _ The reference of a pronoun to itsnoun, should always be _so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it:_otherwise the noun ought to be repeated. "It is folly to pretend to armourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, whichnothing can protect us against but the good providence of our HeavenlyFather. " _Which_, in this sentence, grammatically refers to _treasures;_and this would convert the whole period into nonsense. The sentenceshould have been thus constructed, "It is folly to pretend, by heapingup treasures, to arm ourselves against the _accidents_ of life, against_which_ nothing can protect us but the good providence of our HeavenlyFather. "

STRENGTH. By the _strength_ of a sentence is meant such an arrangementof its several words and members, as exhibits the sense to the bestadvantage, and gives every word and member its due weight and force. 

1. The first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, is, to _takefrom it all redundant words and members. _ Whatever can be easilysupplied in the mind, should generally be omitted; thus, "Content withdeserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it, " is better than to say, "_Being_ content with deserving a triumph. " &c. "They returned backagain to the same city from whence they came forth. " If we expunge fromthis snort sentence _five_ which are were expletives, it will be muchmore neat and forcible thus, "They returned to the city whence theycame. " But we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give ahardness and dryness to the style. Some leaves must be left to shelterand adorn the fruit. 

2. _Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and allthe particles employed for transition and connexion, is required_. Incompositions of an elevated character, the _relative_ should generallybe inserted. An injudicious repetition of _and_ enfeebles style; butwhen enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct fromeach other as possible, it may be repeated with peculiar advantage;thus, "Such a man may fall a victim to power; but truth, _and_ reason, _and_ liberty, would fall with him. "

3. _Dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence inwhich they will make the most striking impression_. 

4. _Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importanceone above another_. In a sentence of two members, the longer shouldgenerally be the concluding one. 

5. _Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or anyinconsiderable word, unless it be emphatical_. 

6. _Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, aresemblance in the language and construction should be observed_. 

 * * * * *

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is promptedeither by the imagination, or by the passions. They generally imply somedeparture from simplicity of expression; and exhibit ideas in a mannermore vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figureshave been commonly divided into two great classes; Figures of _Words_, and Figures of _Thought_. 

Figures of Words are called _Tropes_, and consist in a word's beingemployed to signify something that is different from its originalmeaning; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure. 

When we say of a person, that he has a fine _taste_ in wines, the wordtaste is used in its common, literal sense; but when we say, he has afine _taste_ for painting, poetry, or music, we use the wordfiguratively. "A good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity, " issimple language; but when it is said, "To the upright there ariseth_light_ in _darkness_, " the same sentiment is expressed in a figurativestyle, _light_ is put in the place of _comfort_, and _darkness_ is usedto suggest the idea of _adversity_. 

The following are the most important figures:

1. A METAPHOR is founded on the resemblance which one object bears toanother; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form. 

When I say of some great minister, "That he upholds the state like a_pillar_ which supports the weight of a whole edifice, " I fairly make acomparison; but when I say of such a minister, "That he is the _pillar_of the state, " the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latterconstruction, the comparison between the minister and a pillar, is madein the mind; but it is expressed without any of the words that denotecomparison. 

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found invast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &c. ; and men, according to their different dispositions, are styledwolves, sheep, dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. 

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the AmericanAborigines who linger on the borders of the "white settlements, " employsthe following beautiful metaphor: "The proud _pillar_ of theirindependence has been shaken down, and the whole moral _fabric_ lies inruins. "

2. AN ALLEGORY may be regarded as a metaphor continued; or it is severalmetaphors so connected together in sense, as frequently to form a kindof parable or fable. It differs from a single metaphor, in the samemanner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape. 

The following is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60thpsalm; wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of avine. "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out theheathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it; and didst causeit to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were coveredwith the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodlycedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into theriver. "

3. A SIMILE or COMPARISON is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. 

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, "The actions of princes are likethose great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but theirsprings have been seen by few. " "As the mountains are round aboutJerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people. " "The music of Carylwas like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to thesoul. " "Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in theshade, but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun. "

 "The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold, And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. "

4. A METONYMY is where the cause is put for the effect, or the effectfor the cause; the container for the thing contained; or the sign forthe thing signified. 

When we say, "They read _Milton_, " the cause is put for the effect, meaning "Milton's _works_. " "Gray hairs should be respected;" here theeffect is put for the cause; meaning by "gray hairs, " _old age_, whichproduces gray hairs. In the phrase, "The kettle boils, " the container issubstituted for the thing contained. "He addressed the _chair_;" thatis, the person in the chair. 

5. A SYNECDOCHE OR COMPREHENSION. When the whole is put for a part, or apart for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; ingeneral, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the preciseobject meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche. 

Thus, "A fleet of twenty _sail_, instead of, _ships_. " "The _horse_ is anoble animal;" "The _dog_ is a faithful creature:" here an individual isput for the species. We sometimes use the "head" for the _person_, andthe "waves" for the _sea_. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for asubject; as "Youth" for the _young_, the "deep" for the _sea_. 

6. PERSONIFICATION or PROSOPOPOEIA is that figure by which we attributelife and action to inanimate objects. When we say, "The ground _thirsts_for rain, " or, "the earth _smiles_ with plenty;" when we speak of"ambition's being _restless_, " or, "a disease's being _deceitful_;" suchexpressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate theproperties of living creatures to things that are inanimate. 

The following are fine examples of this figure:

 "Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old _Ocean smiles_;"

 "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. "

7. AN APOSTROPHE is an address to some person, either absent or dead, asif he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently madeto a personified object; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory. O_death!_ where is thy sting? O _grave!_ where is thy victory?"

 "Weep on the rock of roaring winds, O _maid_ of Inistore; bend thy fair head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morveu. "

8. ANTITHESIS. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, onthe contrast or opposition, of two objects. 

_Example. _ "If you wish to enrich a person, study not to _increase_ his_stores_, but to _diminish_ his _desires. "_

9. HYPERBOLE or EXAGGERATION consists in magnifying an object beyond itsnatural bounds. "As swift as the wind; as white as the snow; as slow asa snail;" and the like, are extravagant hyperboles. 

 "I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the bills. "

10. VISION is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we usethe present tense, and describe it as actually, passing before our eyes. 

11. INTERROGATION. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask aquestion; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm ordeny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of aquestion. 

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak: "The Lord is not man, that heshould lie, nor the son of man, that he should repeat. Hath he said it?and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make itgood?" "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voicelike him?"

12. EXCLAMATIONS are the effect of strong emotions, such a surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. 

 "O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men!" "O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"

13. IRONY is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts;not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our remarks. We canreprove one for his negligence, by saying, "You have taken great care, indeed. "

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priestsof Baal to prove the truth of their deity. "He mocked them, and said. Cry aloud for he is a god: either he is talking, or he is pursuing, orhe is on a journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked. "

14. AMPLIFICATION or CLIMAX consists in heightening all thecircumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in astrong light. 

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says, "It is acrime to put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt toscourge him; little less than parricide to put him to death: what name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him?"

KEY. 

_Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and Notes_. 

RULE 4. Frequent commission of sin _hardens_ men in it. Great pains_have_ been taken, &c. --_is_ seldom found. The sincere _are_, &c. --_is_happy. What _avail_, &c. --Disappointments _sink_--the renewal of hope_gives_, &c. --_is_ without limit, _has_ been conferred upon us. --Thou_canst_ not heal--but thou _mayst_ do, &c. --_consists_ the happiness, &c. --Who _touchedst_, or _didst touch_ Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

_Note 1. _ And _wilt thou_ never be to Heaven resigned?--And _who_ hadgreat abilities, &c. 

_Note 2. _ Are peace and honor. --_was_ controversy. 

RULE 7. _Them_ that you visited. --_him_ that was mentioned. --_he_ whopreached repentance, &c. --_they_ who died. --_he_ who succeeded. 

RULE 8. Time and tide _wait, _ &c. --_remove_ mountains. --_are_ bothuncertain. --_dwell_ with, &c. --_affect_ the mind, &c. --What _signify_the counsel and care, &c. --_are_ now perished. --Why _are_ whiteness andcoldness, &c. --bind _them_ continually, &c. --render _their_ possessor, &c. --There _are_ error and discrepance--which _show_, &c. 

RULE 9. _Is_ the same in idea. --_is_ in the porphyry. --_is_ remarkable, &c. --which _moves_ merely as _it is_ moved. --_affects_ us, &c. --Man'shappiness or misery _is_, in a great measure, &c. --for _it_ may be, &c. --_was_ blameworthy. 

RULE 10. The nation _is_ powerful. --The fleet _was_ seen, &c. --Thechurch _has_, &c. --_is_, or ought to be, the _object_, &c. --_it_ isfeeble. 

RULE 11. My people _do_, &c. --The multitude eagerly _pursue_ pleasure as_their_, &c. --_were_ divided in _their_ sentiments, and _they have_referred, &c. --The people _rejoice_--give _them_ sorrow. 

RULE 12. _Homer's_ works are, &c. --_Asa's_ heart. _James Hart's_ book. 

_Note 1. _ It was the _men_, _women_, and children's lot, &c. Or, _It wasthe lot of_ the men, women, and children. --_Peter_, _John_, andAndrew's, &c. 

_Note 2. _ This is _Campbell_ the poet's production; or, _The productionof Campbell, &c. _--The silk was purchased at Brown's the _mercer_ and_haberdasher. _

_Note_ 4. The _pupil's_ composing, &c. --_rule's_ being observed. --of the_president's_ neglecting to lay it before the council. 

RULE 13. Of _his_ audience. --put _it_ on Jacob. --sprinkle _them_--andthey shall, &c. --of _his_ reputation. 

_Note_. You were blamed; you _were_ worthy. --where _were_ you?--how fat_were_ you?

RULE 14. Who _hast_ been, &c. --_who is_ the sixth _that has_ lost _hislife_ by this means. 

Who all my sense _confinedst;_ or, _didst confine_. 

_Note_. And _who broughtest_ him forth out of Ur. 

RULE 15, _Who_ shall be sent, &c. --This is the man _who_, &c. 

RULE 16. They _to whom_ much is given, &c. --_with whom_ you associate&c. --_whom_ I greatly respect, &c. --_whom_ we ought to love, and _towhom_, &c--They _whom_ conscience, &c. --With _whom_ did youwalk?--_Whom_ did you see?--To _whom_ did you give the book?

RULE 17. Who gave John those books? _We_. --_him_ who lives in Pearlstreet--My brother and _he_. --_She_ and _I_. 

RULE 18: _Note_ 2. Thirty _tuns_. --twenty _feet_--one hundred _fathoms_. 

_Note_ 6. He bought a pair of _new_ shoes--piece of _elegant_furniture. --pair of _fine_ horses--tract of _poor_ land. 

_Note_ 7. Are still more _difficult to be comprehended_. --most_doubtful_, or _precarious_ way, &c. --_This model comes nearerperfection than any I_, &c. 

RULE 19: _Note. That_ sort. --_these_ two hours. --_This_ kind, &c. --Hesaw one _person_, or more _than one_, enter the garden. 

_Note_ 2. Better than _himself_. --_is_ so small. --_his_ station may be, _is_ bound by the laws. 

_Note_ 3. On _each_ side, &c. --took _each_ his censer. 

RULE 20. _Whom_ did they, &c. --They _whom_ opulence, --_whom_ luxury, &c. --_Him_ and _them_ we know, &c. --_Her_ that is negligent, &c. --mybrother and _me_ &c. --_Whom_ did they send, &c. --_Them whom_ he, &c. 

RULE 21. It is _I_. --If I were _he_. --it is _he_, indeed. --_Whom_ doyou, &c. --_Who_ do men say, &c. --and _who_ say ye, &c. --_whom_ do youimagine it to have been?--it was _I_; but you knew that it was _he_. 

RULE 25. Bid him _come_--durst not _do_ it. --Hear him _read, _ &c. --makesus _approve_ and _reject_, &c. --better _to_ live--than _to_ outlive, &c. --_to_ wrestle. 

RULE 26: _Note_. The taking _of_ pains: or, without taking pains, &c. --The changing _of_ times, --the removing and setting up _of_ kings. 

RULE 28: _Note_ 3. He _did_ me--I had _written_--he _came_home. --_befallen_ my cousin--he would have _gone_. --already _risen_. --is_begun_. --is _spoken_. --would have _written_--had they _written_, &c. 

RULE 29: _Note_ 1. It cannot, _therefore_, be, &c. --he was _not often_pleasing. --should _never_ be separated. --We may live _happily_, &c. 

RULE 30: _Note_. I don't know _any thing_; or, I _know_ nothing, &c. --Idid not see _anybody_; or, I saw _nobody_, &c. --Nothing ever _affects_her. --_and_ take no shape _or_ semblance, &c. --There _can_ be nothing, &c. --_Neither_ precept _nor_ discipline is so forcible as example. 

RULE 31. For _himself_. --among _themselves_. --_with whom_ he is, &c. --_With whom_ did, &c. --_From whom_ did you receive instruction?

RULE 33. My brother and _he_, &c. --You and _I_, &c. _He_ and I--John and_he_, &c. --Between you and _me_, &c. 

RULE 34. And _entreat_ me, &c. --and _acting_ differently, &c. 

_Note_ 1. But _he_ may return--but _he_ will write no more. 

_Note_ 2. Unless it _rain_. --If he _acquire_ riches, &c. 

RULE 35. Than _I_--as well as _he_, than _they_. --but _he_. --but _he_and _I_. --but _them_ who had gone astray. 

_Promiscuous Examples_. --_Him_ who is from eternity, &c. --_depends_ allthe happiness, --which _exists_, &c. --the enemies _whom_, &c. --Is it _I_or _he whom_ you requested?--Though great _have_ been, --sincerely_acknowledge_. --There _was_, in the metropolis. --exercising ourmemories. --_was_ consumed. --Affluence _may_ give--but _it_ will not. --ofthis world often choke. --_Them_ that honor, --and _they_ that despise. --Iintended _to call_ last week. --the fields look _fresh_ and _gay_. --very_neatly, finely woven_ paper. --where I _saw_ Gen. Andrew Jackson, _him_who. --Take the _first two_, --_last three_. --thirty _feet_ high. --_a_union, --_a_ hypothesis. --I have _seen_ him _to whom_ you wrote, he wouldhave _come_ back, or _returned_. --_understands_ the nature, --he_rejects_. --If thou _study_, --thou _wilt_ become. --is not _properly_attended to. --He _knew_. --therefore, to _have_ done it, --_than_ thetitle. --very _independently_. --duty to _do_. --my _friend's_entering. --is the _best_ specimen, or it _comes nearer_ perfection _thanany_, &c. --blow _them_, will go, &c. --_Each of those two authors hashis_ merit. --_Reason's_ whole, --_lie_ in. --_strikes_ the mind, --than if_the parts had been adjusted_, --with _perfect_ symmetry. 

Satire _does_ not carry in _it_. --_composes_ the triangle. --_persons'_opportunities were _ever_. --It _has been_ reported. --should _never_be. --situation _in which_. --_is_ thoroughly versed in _his_. --_are_ thesoul, --_follows_ little. --An army _presents_. --_are_ the _duties_ of achristian. --happier than _he_. --_always_ have _inclined_, and _whichalways_ will incline him to offend. --which _require_ great. --_Them_ thathonor me, will I. --_has_ opinions peculiar to _itself_. --that _it may_be said _he attained_ monarchical. --_hast_ permitted, --_wilt_deliver. --_was_ formerly propagated. --the measure _is_, --unworthyyour. --_were_ faithless. --After I _had_ visited. --nor shall _I_, consent. --Yesterday I intended to _walk_ out, but _was_. --_make_ or_are_ thirteen, --_leave_ three. --If he _go_, --make _the eighth time_that he _will have_ visited. --_is_ nobler. --was possessed, or _thatever_ can be. --one great _edifice_, --smaller _ones_. --honesty _is_. --itto _be_. --_will_ follow me, --I _shall_ dwell. --_is_ gone astray. --hecould, not _have done_. --_feeling_ a propensity. 

PUNCTUATION. 

COMMA. 

_Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation_. 

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the humanheart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All fineryis a sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction tofuture misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a realdefect in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, servesto exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens all its objects. Gentleness is, in truth, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have yourfailings. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride andignorance, under costly attire. The best men often experiencedisappointments. Advice should be seasonably administered. No assumedbehavior can always hide the real character. 

RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue, my dear child, to make virtue thy chief study. Canst thouexpect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance?Death, the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm oflife, sooths us under every misfortune. Confucius, the great Chinesephilosopher, was eminently good, as well as wise. The patriarch Josephis an illustrious example of true piety. 

RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. Toenjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of renderinghim conspicuous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm andconstant spirit, will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind composeone family, assembled under the eye of one common Father. 

KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of themutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses theunderstanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades manfrom his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many ayouth. He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and hiselder brother. The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, reliedupon, and esteemed. Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, and base. An upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what isjust and true, lovely, honest, and of good report. Habits of reading, writing, and thinking, are the indispensable qualifications of a goodstudent. The great business of life is, to be employed in doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of our duty. 

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there arecauses of decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, executepromptly. An idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as iscorrupting. This unhappy person had been seriously, affectionatelyadmonished, but in vain. 

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friendshipsof the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what isset before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A manwho is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent wordsthat can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion ourcomplaints of the world, are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every objectin its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffectedcivility which springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparablecharm. The Lord, whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we sawyesterday. 

RULE 8. Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. Truefriendship will, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all theundoubted articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys thestrength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. 

RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical; as a friend, captious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summerthere will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth betrifled away without improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and oldage, miserable. 

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be condemned byour own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to becondemned by our own hearts. 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path; that of falsehood isa perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship;hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery; as there areworldly honors, which, in his estimation, are a reproach; so, there is aworldly wisdom, which, in his sight, is foolishness. 

 But all subsists by elemental strife; And passions are the elements of life. 

COLON. 

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillity, are vice, superstition, and idleness: vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with badpassions; superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; idleness, which loads it with tediousness and disgust.