ELEMENTS

 OF

 PLUMBING

 BY SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE

 HEAD OF SANITARY EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATION DEPT. CARNEGIE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

 FIRST EDITION

 MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 239 WEST 39TH STREET. NEW YORK

 LONDON: HILL PUBLISHING CO. , LTD. 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST. , E. C. 1918

 COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MCGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC. 

 THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA

PREFACE

In preparing this manuscript the author has had in mind the needsof young men having no technical instruction who are anxious tobecome proficient in the art of Plumbing. As a consequence eachexercise is minutely described and illustrated; so much so, perhaps, that an experienced mechanic may find it too simple forskilled hands and a mature mind. But the beginner will not find theexercises too elaborately described and will profit by carefulstudy. Years of experience and observation have shown the authorthat the methods herein described are entirely practical and are incommon use today. 

The various exercises in lead work will acquaint the beginner withthe correct use of tools and metals. The exercises in iron pipework have also been detailed to show the correct installation ofjobs. 

Together with the study of this book the subjects of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Drawing and English should be taken. Thesesubjects as they bear on Plumbing are invaluable to the mechanic inhis future connection with the trade. 

The author is indebted for the illustrations of fixtures in thechapter covering the development of plumbing fixtures, to theThomas Maddock's Sons Co. , Standard Sanitary Mfg. Co. , and TheTrenton Potteries Co. 

 SAMUEL EDWARD DIBBLE. PITTSBURGH, _December, 1917_. 

CONTENTS

 PAGE

 PREFACE v

 CHAPTER

 I. Plumbing Fixtures and Trade 1

 II. The Use and Care of the Soldering Iron--Fluxes--Making Different Soldering Joints 11

 III. Mixtures of Solders for Soldering Iron and Wiping--Care of Solders--Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 21

 IV. Making and Caring of Wiping Cloths 24

 V. Preparing and Wiping Joints 27

 VI. Preparing and Wiping Joints (_Continued_) 37

 VII. Laying Terra-cotta and Making Connections to Public Sewers--Water Connections to Mains in Streets 69

 VIII. Installing of French or Sub-soil Drains 82

 IX. Storm and Sanitary Drainage with Sewage Disposal in View 86

 X. Soil and Waste Pipes and Vents--Tests 95

 XI. House Traps, Fresh-air Connections, Drum Traps, and Non-syphoning Traps 104

 XII. Pipe Threading 110

 XIII. Cold-water Supply--Test 118

 XIV. Hot-water Heaters--Instantaneous Coil and Storage Tanks--Return Circulation, Hot-water Lines and Expansion 124

 XV. Insulation of Piping to Eliminate Conduction, Radiation, Freezing and Noise 131

 XVI. "Durham" or "Screw Pipe" Work--Pipe and Fittings 134

 XVII. Gas Fittings, Pipe and Fittings, Threading, Measuring and Testing 141

 XVIII. Plumbing Codes 153

 INDEX 167

ELEMENTS OF PLUMBING

CHAPTER I

PLUMBING FIXTURES AND TRADE

Modern plumbing as a trade is the arranging and running of pipes tosupply pure water to buildings, the erecting of fixtures for theuse of this supply, and the installing of other pipes for theresulting waste water. The work of the trade divides itselftherefore into two parts: first the providing an adequate supply ofwater; and second, the disposing of this water after use. The firstdivision offers few problems to the plumber, little variety in thelayout being possible, and the result depending mostly upon thearrangement of the pipes and fittings; but the second divisioncalls for careful study in the arrangement, good workmanship in theinstalling, and individual attention to each fixture. 

The trade had its beginnings in merely supplying fresh water to acommunity. This was done by means of trenching, or conveying waterfrom lakes, rivers, or springs through wooden pipes or opentroughs. By easy stages the trade improved and enlarged its scope, until at the present time it is able to provide for the adequatedistribution of tons of water under high pressure furnished by thecity water works. 

In the early years of the trade the question of the disposal of thewaste water was easily answered, for it was allowed to bedischarged onto the ground to seek its own course. But with theincreased amount of water available, the waste-water problem hasenlarged until today it plays the most important part of plumbing, and the trade has had to change to meet this waste-water problem. 

The first simple system of a pipe running from the sink to a pointoutside the building was sufficient. As larger buildings came intouse and communities were more thickly populated, the plumbingproblem demanded thought and intense study. The waste pipes fromfixtures had to be so arranged that it would be impossible for foulodors and germ-laden air to enter the building through a plumbingfixture. The importance of this is evidenced by the plumbing lawsnow in use throughout the country. 

One of the first plumbing fixtures put into common use was ahollowed-out stone which served as a sink. It was with considerableinterest that the writer saw a sink of this kind in actual use inthe summer of 1915, at a house in a New England village. This sinkhad been in service for about 100 years. From this beginning thewell-known fixtures of today have developed. The demand formoderate priced, sanitary closets, lavatories, and baths has led tothe rapid improvement seen in plumbing fixtures. In the developmentof these fixtures, as soon as a bad feature was recognized thefixture was at once discarded, until now the market offers fixturesas mechanically fine as can be produced. Plumbing fixtures were atfirst manufactured so that it was necessary to support them on awooden frame, and this frame was enclosed in wood. The enclosuremade by this framework soon became foul and filthy and a breedingplace for all kinds of disease germs and vermin. This bad featurewas overcome by the introduction of open plumbing, that is, fixtures so made that the enclosure of wood could be done awaywith. The open plumbing allowed a free circulation of air aroundthe fixture and exposed pipes, thereby making the outside of thefixture and its immediate surroundings free from all the badfeatures of the closed plumbing. Plenty of fresh air and plenty oflight are necessary for good sanitary plumbing. 

The materials of which the first open-plumbing fixtures were madeconsisted of marble, copper, zinc, slate, iron, and clay. Time soonproved that marble and slate were absorbent, copper and zinc soonleaked from wear, iron rusted, and clay cracked and lackedstrength; therefore these materials soon became insanitary, andfoul odors were easily detected rising from the fixture. Besidesthese materials being insanitary, the fact that a fixture wasconstructed using a number of sections proved that joints and seamswere insanitary features on a fixture. For instance, in a marblelavatory constructed by using one piece for the top, another forthe bowl, and still another for the back, filth accumulated atevery joint and seam. Following this condition, developed the ironenameled and earthenware fixtures, constructed without seams andwith a smooth, even, glossy white finish. The fact that thesefixtures are made of material that is non-absorbent adds to theirvalue as sanitary plumbing fixtures. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1. --Pan closet (_English_). ]

Another problem which is as important as the foregoing is theproper flushing, that is, the supplying of sufficient water in amanner designed to cleanse the fixture properly. 

The development of sanitary earthenware illustrates how the aboveproblems were satisfactorily solved. In the city of London a lawcompelling the use of drains was enforced, and in the early 70'sthe effect of this law was felt in this country. The introductionat this time of the mechanical water closet, known as the "pancloset, " and the English plumbing material which was brought tothis country was the beginning of "American plumbing, " which todayoutstrips that of any other country in the world. The "pan closet"continued in use for some time until the "valve closet" wasintroduced as a more sanitary fixture. Closely following theseclosets, in 1880, the plunger closet became popular as a still moresanitary fixture. The plunger closet continued in use until thepresent all-earthenware closet bowl drove all other makes from themarket. The American development of the earthenware closet bowlput the American sanitary fixture far ahead of the Englishimprovements, as the American earthenware is superior and thesanitary features of the bowls are nearer perfection. 

[Illustration: FIG. 2. --Pan closet (_American_). ]

[Illustration: FIG. 3. --Plunger closet. ]

When the washout bowl was introduced it was considered perfection. The hopper closet bowl, which was nothing more than a funnel-shapedbowl placed on top of a trap, was placed in competition with thewashout bowl. There are a number of these bowls now in use and alsobeing manufactured. However, large cities prohibit their use. 

[Illustration: FIG. 4. --Plunger closet. ]

To quote Thomas Maddock's Sons Co. : "In 1876 Wm. Smith of SanFrancisco patented a water closet which employed a jet to assist inemptying the bowl and the development of this principle is dueentirely to the potter, who had gradually and by costly experimentbecome the determining factor in the evolution of the watercloset. " With this improvement it became possible to do away withthe boxing-in of the bowl which up to this time had been necessary. Closet bowls of today are made of vitreous body which does notpermit crazing or discoloring of the ware. A study of theillustrations which show the evolution of the closet bowl should beof interest to the student as well as to the apprentice andjourneyman. The bath tub developed from a gouged-out stone, inwhich water could be stored and used for bathing purposes, to ourpresent-day enameled iron and earthenware tubs. The development didnot progress very rapidly until about 25 years ago. Since thenevery feature of the tub has been improved, and from a sanitarystandpoint the tubs of today cannot be improved. The bath tub hasbecome an American custom, as the people in this country havedemanded that they have sanitary equipment in their homes, while inthe European countries this demand has not developed. 

[Illustration: FIG. 5. --Modern low-tank closet. ]

The first tubs used in this country were of wood lined with copperor zinc, and were built in or boxed in with wood panelling. Theplumbing ordinances of today prohibit this boxing as it proved tobe a breeding place for vermin, etc. As the illustration shows, thewoodwork encasing the tub was in a great many cases beautifullycarved and finished. 

The placing on the market of a steel-clad tub, a steel tub with acopper lining, which did away with the boxing, was a bigimprovement as far as sanitary reasons were concerned as well as areduction in cost of tubs. These tubs were set up on legs whichpermitted cleaning and provided good ventilation all around. Withthese features they drove all other tubs from the market. Thecopper and zinc were found to be hard to keep clean and they weresoon replaced by the iron enamelled and earthenware tubs. Thefinish on these tubs being white and non-absorbent makesthem highly acceptable as sanitary fixtures. A study of theillustrations will show how progress has been made in design aswell as in sanitary features. 

[Illustration: FIG. 6. --Encased bath tub. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 7. --Steel tub on legs. ]

THE WASH BOWL. --Succeeding the hand basin the first wash basinsused in this country were made of marble or slate, with a roundbowl of crockery. The bowl was 14 inches in diameter originally, but later was changed to an oval bowl. Like the bath tub thesewash stands were encased in wood, the encasing being used tosupport the marble top. Ornamental brackets were introduced and thewood encasement done away with. 

[Illustration: FIG. 8. --Modern built-in tub. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 9. --Encased wash bowl. ]

About 1902 the iron-enamelled lavatory appeared on the market anddrove all other kinds from the market at once. The reason for thisis clear. The marble stands were absorbent and were made with threeparts, top, back, and bowl; the enamelled iron lavatory is madeall in one piece of material non-absorbent. A study of theillustrations will show clearly how the lavatory has beenimproved. Strange to say, in all plumbing fixtures, and especiallythe lavatory, as improvements were made to make them more sanitarya reduction has been made in the price of an individual fixture. 

[Illustration: FIG. 10. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 11. --Bath room of early 80's. All fixtures areenclosed. ]

The development of the urinal, showers, wash trays, drinkingfountains and other fixtures I will not attempt to cover. As thedemand has been evident for fixtures of certain types, the plumberhas been alert to anticipate and supply it. There is need, however, for improvement in all our fixtures, especially that partwhich connects with the waste pipes, also the hanging, that is thearrangement or lack of arrangement for hanging fixtures to thewall. The waste and overflow of all fixtures need considerablechange to make them sanitary. The opportunity is, therefore, beforeanyone who will apply himself to this development. Much money, thought, and time have been spent by the manufacturers of ironenamelled ware and by the potteries to gather suggestions made bythe plumber in regard to fixtures, and then to perfect them. Tothese manufacturers is due the beautiful design, stability, andperfect sanitary material which make up our plumbing fixtures oftoday. 

[Illustration: FIG. 12. ]

CHAPTER II

THE USE AND CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON. FLUXES. MAKING DIFFERENTSOLDERING JOINTS

[Illustration: FIG. 13. --Copper. ]

THE SOLDERING IRON. --The soldering iron is one of the first tools aplumber has to master. This tool is sometimes called a "copper bit"as it is made of copper; and so throughout this book the words"soldering iron, " "copper bit, " "iron, " and "bit" are usedsynonymously. There are several different-shaped irons in commonuse today, but an iron shaped like the one in Fig. 13 is the onefor use in the following work. Take the iron as it is purchased, having a wooden handle and the copper exposed on pointed end. Before it can be used the point must be faced and tinned. To dothis, proceed as follows:

 _First_, heat the iron on the furnace. 

 _Second_, place in vise and file the four surfaces of the point. 

 _Third_, run a file over edges and point. 

 _Fourth_, heat the iron until it will melt solder. 

 _Fifth_, put 6 or 8 drops of solder and a piece of rosin the size of a chestnut on an ordinary red brick. (This rosin is called a flux. )

 _Sixth_, take the hot iron and melt the solder and rosin on the brick. 

 _Seventh_, rub the four surfaces of the point of the iron on the brick keeping the point in the melted solder. 

The solder will soon stick to the copper surfaces and then the ironis ready for use. 

Another way to tin the iron that is in common use is to rub thepoint of a hot iron on a piece of sal-ammoniac, or dip the hot ironin reduced muriatic acid, then rub the stick of solder on the iron. The use of muriatic acid in tinning the iron is not recommended. Inthe first place, it is not always possible to carry it, and in thesecond place it eats holes in the surface of iron, which makes itnecessary to file and smooth the surfaces again. The constant useof muriatic acid on the copper soon wears it away and makes itunfit for use. Rosin is easily carried and applied and is by farthe best to use in regular work. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER IN THE CARE OF THE SOLDERING IRON. --

 _First_, proper tinning is absolutely necessary for rapid and good work. 

 _Second_, do not allow the iron to heat red hot. 

 _Third_, keep the point of the iron properly shaped. 

 _Fourth_, use the same flux in tinning as is to be used in soldering. 

 _Fifth_, when filing iron, file as little as possible. 

 _Sixth_, keep in use two irons of the same size. 

FLUX

A flux is used to clean the surfaces of joints and seams to besoldered, also to keep them from oxidizing and to help the metalsto fuse. 

The following list gives the names of various fluxes in common use, how they are applied, and on what material they are most commonlyused:

 Flux How applied Used on

 Rosin Sprinkled on Lead, tin, and brass Tallow Melted Lead and brass Muriatic acid (reduced) With swab Copper, galvanized iron and brass Muriatic acid (raw) With swab Dirty galvanized iron

ROSIN. --Rosin is purchased by the pound and comes in chunks. It isvery brittle and powders easily. Plumbers generally take a piece of1-1/4 N. P. Brass tubing, solder a trap screw in one end and acone-shaped piece of copper on the other. The point of the cone isleft open. Rosin is put into this tube and is easily sprinkled onwork when needed. 

TALLOW. --A plumber's _tallow candle_ answers the purpose for tallowflux. Some plumbers carry a can for the tallow, making it cleanerto handle. 

MURIATIC ACID. --Muriatic acid or hydrochloric acid is used both rawand reduced. Raw acid is not diluted or reduced. Reduced acid ismade as follows: Put some zinc chips in a lead receptacle and thenpour in the muriatic acid. The acid will at once act on the zinc. The fumes should be allowed to escape into the outer air. Whenchemical action ceases, the liquid remaining is called reducedacid. 

PLUMBERS' SOILS AND PASTE

It is necessary when soldering or wiping a joint to cover the partsof pipe adjoining the portion that is to be soldered or wiped sothat the solder will not stick to it. There are a number ofpreparations for this. The one used by the best mechanics today ispaste, made as follows:

 8 teaspoons of flour. 1 teaspoon of salt. 1 teaspoon of sugar. Mix with water and boil down to a thick paste. 

The advantages of paste as a soil are many:

 _First_, it is made of materials easily obtained. 

 _Second_, solder will not stick to it. 

 _Third_, if pipe is thoroughly cleaned, the paste will not rub off easily. 

 _Fourth_, poor workmanship cannot be covered up. 

 _Fifth_, when the work is completed, a wet cloth will wipe it off and leave the work clean. 

Another soil used is _lampblack_ and _glue_. A quantity of glue ismelted and then lampblack is added. This needs to be heated andwater added each time it is used. This soil is put on pipes with ashort stubby brush. The work when completed with the silvery jointand jet black borders appears to the uninitiated very artistic andneat, but when the black soil is worn away the uneven edges of thejoint appear, disclosing the reason for using a black soil thatcovers all defects. The mechanic of today who takes pride in hisability for good workmanship will not cover his work with blacksoil. 

It can readily be seen that the use of lampblack soil encouragespoor workmanship, while the use of paste forces, to a certainextent, good workmanship on the part of the mechanic. 

Before soil or paste is applied, the pipe needs to be cleansed. Grease and dirt accumulate on the pipe. The methods employed toremove all foreign matter are simply to scrape the surface withfine sand or emery paper; sand and water will also answer for thispurpose. This cleans the surface and allows the soil or paste tostick to the pipe. 

MAKING DIFFERENT SOLDER JOINTS

The tools used in making the different solder joints as describedand illustrated in this chapter are shown in Fig. 14. 

CUP JOINT. --The materials necessary for the work (Fig. 15): 12inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe, paste, rosin, 1/2 and 1/2 solder. 

If a gas furnace is not on the bench to heat the iron, then agasoline furnace is necessary. 

Each of the following operations must be done thoroughly to insurea perfect job:

 _First_, with the SAW cut off 12 inches of 1/2-inch AA lead pipe from the coil. When cutting off a piece of lead pipe from a coil or reel, always straighten out 1 foot more than is needed. This leaves 1 foot of straight pipe always on the coil. 

 [Illustration: FIG. 14. --Tools used for making solder joints. ]

 _Second_, with the flat side of the RASP, square the ends of the 12-inch piece of pipe. (A good way to do this is to hold the pipe at right angles with the edge of the bench, run the rasp across the end of the pipe, keeping the rasp _parallel_ with the edge of the bench. Apply this to all work when necessary to square the ends of pipe. )

 _Third_, cut the pipe with the saw, making two pieces each 6 inches in length. 

 _Fourth_, square the ends just cut. 

 _Fifth_, rasp the edges of one end as shown in the cut. Hold the work in such a way that the stroke of the rasp can be seen without moving the pipe. 

 _Sixth_, take the other 6-inch piece of pipe and with the TURN PIN spread one end of it. The turn pin must be struck squarely in the center with the HAMMER, the point of the turn pin being kept in the center of the pipe. The pipe should be turned after each blow of the hammer. The pipe must not rest on the bench but should be held in the hand while using the turn pin. If the pipe bends, it can be straightened with BENDING IRONS. If the pipe is spread more on one side than the other, the turn pin should be hit on the opposite side so as to even the spread. 

 [Illustration: FIG. 15. ]

 _Seventh_, when the pipes are properly fitted, moisten the tips of the fingers with paste and rub the paste on parts of pipe marked "paste. " Put the pipe aside to allow the paste to dry. 

 _Eighth_, put the soldering iron on to heat. 

 _Ninth_, with the SHAVE HOOK scrape off the paste and surface dirt as shown in the figure. The inside of the cup will look bright, but must be scraped. 

 [Illustration: FIG. 16. --Cup joint. ]

 _Tenth_, place the two pieces into position as shown in Fig. 16, sprinkle rosin on the joint, melt a few drops of solder on the joint and with the iron melt the solder on the joint, drawing the iron around the pipe keeping the solder melted around the iron all the time. 

 _Eleventh_, fill the joint with solder and continue to draw the hot iron around the joint until a smooth and bright surface is obtained. To master the correct use of the soldering iron in this work, considerable practice will be necessary. 

OVERCAST JOINTS. --(Fig. 17. )

 NOTE. --Each operation must be performed thoroughly. 

 _First_, saw off from a coil of 1-1/2-inch D lead pipe a 10-inch piece of pipe. 

 _Second_, square the ends with the rasp, as previously explained. 

 _Third_, take a 1-1/2-inch DRIFT PLUG and drive through the pipe (Fig. 18). 

 _Fourth_, saw the pipe into two pieces of 5 inches each. 

 _Fifth_, square the ends of the pipe with the rasp. 

 _Sixth_, rasp off the outside edge of one end of the pipe as shown. 

 _Seventh_, rasp off the inside edge of one end of the pipe. 

 _Eighth_, finish rasped surfaces with a file. Both surfaces should have the same angle. 

 [Illustration: FIG. 17. ]

 [Illustration: FIG. 18. ]

 [Illustration: FIG. 19. --Overcast joint. ]

 _Ninth_, with a shave hook scrape the outside surface of each pipe for about 1 inch from the end. 

 _Tenth_, put the soldering iron on to heat. 

 _Eleventh_, paste paper on the joint as shown in the cut. 

 _Twelfth_, fit the pieces together and lay on the bench. Drop some melted solder on the joint and with the hot iron proceed to flow the solder around the joint by turning the pipe. Use plenty of flux (rosin). The pipes must be tacked in three or four places at first or they will have a tendency to spread. 

 _Thirteenth_, to finish the joint, lift the iron straight up. 

This joint when finished will have a bright smooth finish. The twoforegoing joints need considerable practice and should be perfectlymastered before going on to the next job. 

SEAMS

A description of the making of wiped seams for lead-lined tankswill not be attempted as very few are made now. The plumber, however, is often called upon to make a seam joining two pieces ofsheet lead. The beginner will do well to go over the followingexercise carefully and practice it thoroughly. 

[Illustration: FIG. 20. --Flat seam. ]

MATERIALS. --Two pieces of 8-pound sheet lead, 6 by 10 inches each;one bar of 1/2 and 1/2 solder; paste, paper, and rosin. 

TOOLS. --Rasp, shave hook, and soldering iron. 

The 10-inch side of each piece is rasped and fitted together. Theedges are cleaned and paper is pasted on leaving 1/4 inch forsolder. Paste without the paper can be put on. This will make ajoint 1/2 inch wide. 

Apply the rosin to the joint, then with the heated iron and somesolder tack the seam on the top, then on the bottom and middle. This will prevent the seam from spreading when the lead is heated. Solder and rosin can now be put on the full length of the joint. With a hot iron proceed to float the solder down the seam. Thesoldering iron must not rest at full length on the pieces of leador it will melt the lead and render the work useless. The solderwill flow and form a clean neat seam, if the iron is at the rightheat and the right amount of solder is put on. If the iron is toohot, the solder will flow instantly when the iron is laid on it andthe solder will disappear as it runs through the seam. If the ironis too cold the solder will not melt enough to flow. Too muchsolder on the seam will cause it to overflow, that is, the solderwill spread beyond the papered edges. After a little practice thissurplus solder can be drawn in on the seam with the iron andcarried along the seam to some point that has not enough solder. When the seam is completed the edges should be perfectly straightand even. The iron is carried along the seam with one stroke whichmakes the seam appear smooth and bright. 

CHAPTER III

MIXTURES OF SOLDERS FOR SOLDERING IRON AND WIPING. CARE OF SOLDERS. MELTING POINTS OF METALS AND ALLOYS

The importance of good solder, that is, solder correctly mixed andthoroughly cleaned, should not be overlooked. Work is more quicklyand neatly done and the job presents a more finished appearancewhen solder that is correctly made is used. 

The solder used in the following work with the soldering iron iscalled 1/2 and 1/2. This means 1/2 (50 per cent. ) lead and 1/2 (50per cent. ) tin. 

In the mixture of solder, only pure metals should be used. The leadshould be melted first and all the dross cleaned off. The tinshould then be added and mixed. 

The solder to be used in wiping the joints in the following chapteris a mixture of 37 per cent. Tin and 63 per cent. Lead. This iscalled wiping solder. 

The following table gives the melting points, etc. :

 ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------ | Melting | Metal | point | Mixture ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------ Sulphur | 228 | Pure Tin | 446 | Pure Lead | 626 | Pure Zinc | 680 | Pure Fine solder | 400 | 50 per cent. Tin, 50 per cent. Lead (wt. ) Wiping solder | 370 | 37 per cent. Tin, 63 per cent. Lead (wt. ) ---------------+---------+------------------------------------------

To recognize fine solder, run off a bar into a mold and let itcool. If there is a frosted streak in the center, the metal has notenough tin. The surface should be bright. To recognize wipingsolder, pour some on a brick. When this is cool, the top should befrosty and the under side should have four or five bright spots. The amount poured on the brick should be about the size of a halfdollar. If poured on iron, the metal will cool too quickly and showbright all over the under side. 

TO MAKE 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER OR PLUMBER'S FINE SOLDER. --Thepossibility of getting pure clean metals to mix solder is veryremote. Old pieces of lead pipe, lead trap, old block tin pipe areused to make solder when pure metals are not at hand. 

 _First_, in a cast-iron pot melt the lead to about 800°, or a dull red. 

 _Second_, clean off the dross. 

 _Third_, add (to a 15-pound pot) 1/2 pound of sulphur in three applications. Each time mix the sulphur thoroughly with the metal with a long stick. 

 _Fourth_, add tin before the last application of sulphur. Mix thoroughly. 

 _Fifth_, pour off two bars and look for the frosty streak in the center. Add a little more tin, if necessary. 

TO MIX WIPING SOLDER. --

 _First_, proceed as described in 1/2 and 1/2, melting the metals and _burning_ out with sulphur, adding the percentage of tin according to the preceding table. Then test the solder for bright spots on the under side. 

 _Second_, keep the metal thoroughly mixed when burning and keep all dross cleaned off the surface. 

The working heat of wiping solder is 500°F. Sulphur is used tocollect all zinc and dross. The sulphur should come in contact withall parts of the metal. This is why the metal should be stirredwhen the sulphur is put in. 

A few good points in the economical care of solder are listedbelow. 

CARE OF 1/2 AND 1/2 SOLDER. --

 _First_, do not drop melted solder on the floor or dirty bench. 

 _Second_, use all small ends by melting on a new bar. 

 _Third_, put clean paper under work and use droppings. 

 _Fourth_, have the mold free from dirt when pouring. 

CARE OF WIPING SOLDER. --

 _First_, do not heat red hot. 

 _Second_, do not file brass where the filings will get into the solder. 

 _Third_, do not allow lead chips to get into the solder. 

 _Fourth_, clean the solder occasionally. 

 _Fifth_, learn to distinguish solder from lead by its hardness. 

 _Sixth_, have different-shaped pot for lead and solder. 

 _Seventh_, do not _tin_ brass by dipping into solder. 

 _Eighth_, do not put cold or wet ladle into hot solder. 

A pot holding about 15 pounds of solder is the size commonly inuse. 

CHAPTER IV

MAKING AND CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS

A good wiping cloth is essential for wiping joints. The exact sizeand the flexibility of the cloth depend a great deal upon themechanic who handles the cloth. Some mechanics like a stiff cloth, but the writer has always used a flexible cloth. The sizes, shape, and methods of folding and breaking in as shown in Fig. 21 belowhave proved successful. Cloths made of whalebone ticking areinexpensive and make the best for ordinary use. 

[Illustration: FIG. 21. --Folding a wiping cloth. ]

 Size of cloth open Size of cloth folded 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches equals 3-1/4 by 3-1/4 inches 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches equals 3 by 3 inches 8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches equals 2 by 3 inches

For the joint-wiping jobs to follow, the above sizes are the best. The largest size, 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches is used for _catchcloth_. The 13-1/2 by 13-1/2 inches is the _wiping cloth_. The8-1/2 by 12-1/2 inches is the _branch cloth_. 

Proceed as follows to cut and complete a cloth:

 _First_, lay the ticking on the flat bench and square the sides 14-1/2 by 14-1/2 inches. 

 _Second_, the ticking should be cut off with shears and not torn or cut with a knife. 

 _Third_, fold as shown in the cut. 

Each fold should be moistened with a little water and pressed witha hot iron. The cloth should not be pulled or stretched, but shouldbe kept as square as possible. 

The first and second folds require a little care; the corners whenfolded to the center should be kept in a little, thus making theoutside edge slightly rounded. If this is done, the corners willnot stick out when the cloth is finished. After the cloth iscarefully folded, pressed, and dried, take a needle and thread andsew the open corners about 1/2 inch in from the edge of the cloth. By carefully studying the cut, one can readily see each operationand, by following directions, make a perfect cloth. 

When the cloth is done, an amount of oil sufficient to soak throughabout three layers of cloth should be applied and then rubbed on asmooth surface. The oil should be rubbed in well about the edges. It will not be necessary to apply anything else to the cloth toprepare it for wiping. Paste, soil, chalk, etc. , are not needed anddo not benefit the cloth. When using oil on the cloth, it must notbe used too freely, that is, the cloth must not be soaked in oil, as oil is a rapid conductor of heat and the cloth would soon becometoo hot to handle. 

CARE OF WIPING CLOTHS. --The ticking will burn if allowed to becometoo hot. If hot solder is poured directly on the cloth, it willsoon burn and be destroyed. 

Keep the surface on both sides of the cloth well oiled. 

Use both sides of the cloth. 

Use both wiping edges of the cloth. 

[Illustration: FIG. 22. --Wiping cloth folded has 16 thicknesses ofticking. ]

When the cloth is not in use, it should not be thrown in with theother tools and allowed to curl up into all sorts of shapes, butshould be kept in some flat place. A good way to keep the cloths isto have two pieces of wood between which the cloths may be kept andheld there by means of a strap. The length of time which a wipingcloth can be used depends a great deal upon its making and upon thecare which is given it. 

CHAPTER V

PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS

When the writer first started to carry the tools for a plumber andto prepare joints for wiping, the remark was often heard that jointwiping would soon be a thing of the past. I have heard this manytimes since from many different sources. Personally, I fail to seethe passing of the wiped joint. More lead pipe is being made todaythan ever before, which goes to show that lead pipe is being usedand the only successful way of joining is with the wiped joint. Some plumbers' helpers of today seem to think that joint wiping isof no account. To a certain extent, I can sympathize with them. Most of these boys are learning a trade in large cities and workingfor concerns that do nothing but a large contracting business. Thislarge work is carried on differently from the small work. Wrought-iron or steel pipes are used to a great extent in this workand a very small amount of lead is used. Sometimes the job will becompleted without the use of lead. The boy who works continually onthis kind of work soon comes to think that lead pipes are no longerin use. The writer has found that a boy who has learned to donothing but screw-pipe work is absolutely lost and cannot performthe duties of a plumber, other than screw-pipe work. It must beborne in mind that lead pipe and cast-iron pipe work are being usedtoday in all parts of the country and in some parts more than inothers. Therefore, the boy must grasp all branches of the tradethat he has chosen to follow and not be a one-sided man. Jointwiping belongs to the plumber alone. The plumbing trade differsfrom all other trades in that it has joint wiping for itsdistinctive feature. 

A few attempts at joint wiping will convince the beginner that itis not the easiest thing in the world to learn. Let me caution thebeginner not to get discouraged. He must have patience and a firmresolve to master the art of joint wiping and not let it master himand keep him back. 

So, as we now start on exercises of joint wiping, let the beginnerconstantly keep in mind that all boys must become perfectly skilledin the art of joint wiping before they can be considered plumbers. Keep in mind also that the examination that one must take to get aplumber's license contains an actual exercise in joint wiping. Theone word of advice is not to get discouraged. Continued practice isthe only way to success. 

The soldering iron is, or should be, conquered by this time. Asjoint wiping is the next exercise, I shall go over a few generalpoints that experience has taught me and cannot fail to be ofassistance to the beginner if they are heeded. In fact, to becomeproficient, the beginner should remember all the points suggestedunder this heading. It is necessary in wiping to have good solder. In the chapter on solder, I have given the correct mixtures and howto recognize the proper mixtures. The place where wiping is to bedone should be considered. No draught should be allowed to blowacross the work as it tends to chill the solder and pipe. Propersupport for the work should be procured. If gasoline is to be usedfor fuel to heat the solder, make sure that the tank is full beforestarting, otherwise the fire may go out just when the heat isneeded most and the solder in the pot has become too cool to wipewith. Have a catch pan and keep all the solder droppings to putback into the pot, otherwise the solder will pile up and thefingers are likely to be pushed into the pile and badly burned. Hold the ladle about 2 inches above the work, the catch clothabout 1 inches below. Do not drop the solder in the same place. Keep moving the ladle. Do not pour the solder on the pipe in asteady stream, but drop it on. It is not a large amount of solderthat is wanted on the joint at first, it is heat that is needed. This can be secured better by dropping the solder on than bypouring a large quantity on the pipe. The edges of the joint coolvery quickly; therefore heat the edges well and keep them coveredwith molten solder until the joint is ready to wipe. When preparingjoints for wiping, always do the work thoroughly and fit the piecestogether tightly so that no solder can get through. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, good solder. 

 _Second_, place of wiping. 

 _Third_, support. 

 _Fourth_, full tank of gasoline. 

 _Fifth_, drip pan. 

 _Sixth_, ladle 2 inches above the work. 

 _Seventh_, cloth 1 inches below the work. 

 _Eighth_, move the ladle continually. 

 _Ninth_, _drop_ the solder. 

 _Tenth_, _heat_, not solder wanted at first. 

 _Eleventh_, heat the edges. 

 _Twelfth_, careful preparation. 

 _Thirteenth_, clean grease from the pipe. 

 _Fourteenth_, cut clean straight edges on paper. 

HALF-INCH ROUND WIPED JOINT

PREPARATION. --Take 12 inches of 1/2-inch strong lead pipe andsquare off the ends with a rasp. Take the shave hook and scrape thecenter of the pipe perfectly bright; a space 3 inches each side ofthe center is correct. The size of the joint when completed shouldbe 2-1/2 inches long. If we should undertake to wipe the jointwith the pipe in the present condition, the solder would adhere toall the pipe that was shaved bright. Therefore, we take a piece ofpaper sufficient to encircle the pipe twice and after putting pasteon one side of the paper wrap it around the pipe so that the edgethat is cut straight and even is 1-1/4 inches from the center ofthe pipe. Another piece of paper is pasted on the other side of thecenter leaving a clean, bright space of 2-1/2 inches. All the pipeshould be covered with paper except the 2-1/2 inches in the center. 

[Illustration: FIG. 23. ]

TO PUT THE PIPE IN POSITION FOR WIPING. --The most practical way isto take two common red bricks with the 2 by 8 face down and placethem 9 inches apart. Lay the pipe on the bricks and place a weighton each end. The solder will drop on to the bench, so it is best toplace a piece of paper or a pan of black iron under the pipe tocatch the solder that drops. The pan or paper can then be taken upand the solder put back into the pot without waste. A cast-ironpot holding 15 pounds of solder is then placed on the furnace. Whenthe solder has melted and has reached 500° it is ready for use. This can best be determined by putting a piece of paper in thesolder. If the paper scorches, the solder is at the right heat; ifthe paper catches fire, it is too hot. 

Now take a 3-inch ladle and heat it over the fire and then dip itinto the solder and skim off any dross that may have collected. 

WIPING. --With the ladle full of solder in the right hand and thelarge cloth or the catch cloth in the left hand, begin to drop thesolder on the joint. The cloth should catch all the solder as itfalls off the pipe. If hot solder is held against the bottom of thepipe, it is heated to the proper heat. Always begin to drop thesolder on the paper edges, then drop the solder on the jointitself. Bear in mind that the solder should not be poured on, butdropped on slowly. After the first few drops do not drop the solderdirectly on to the lead pipe but on to the solder previously put onthe pipe. This will save the pipe from burning through. The pipemust be the same heat as the solder before the proper heat isobtained for good wiping. The beginner should practice dropping thesolder on the joint, catching the solder and working it around thepipe. By doing this, one becomes familiar with the feeling of hotsolder, which is the secret of successful wiping. When the solderworks easily around the pipe, drop the ladle and take the smallerwiping cloth in the right hand and with both cloths draw all thesolder on top of the pipe. With fingers on the corners of bothcloths, clean off the left-hand edge and with the right hand drawthe surplus solder across to the right-hand edge. Next, clean theright-hand edge of the joint pushing the surplus solder onto thecloth in the right hand. Work this solder on to the bottom of thejoint. Now discard the catch cloth. Holding the wiping cloth withthe index fingers on lower opposite corners, shape the under andfront side of the joint. With the middle fingers on opposite lowercorners of the cloth shape the back and top. Keep the index andmiddle fingers on the edge of the cloth and the edge of the clothon the edge of the joint. This position together with the size andshape of the cloth will give the joint the desired form andappearance. Particular attention is called to the position of thefingers as shown in the figure. 

The last wipe should be a quick stroke coming off of joint on atangent. If the solder is at right heat, the cloth will not leave anoticeable mark. If, however, the solder is too cold, a ragged edgewill result. Sometimes a cross wipe is made for the last stroke anda good finish obtained. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, width of the joint, 2-1/2 inches. 

 _Second_, allow no soil or paste to get on the joint. 

 _Third_, a 3-inch ladle should be used. 

 _Fourth_, 500° is the working heat of solder. 

 _Fifth_, paper test for solder heat. 

 _Sixth_, position of wiping cloths. 

 _Seventh_, do not drop solder on the lead pipe. 

 _Eighth_, hold the ladle 2 inches above the pipe. 

 _Ninth_, wipe the edges of the joint first. 

 _Tenth_, wipe and shape the joint quickly. 

The above procedure of wiping will be found to work out very easilyif followed closely. Do not pour the hot solder onto the cloth asthe cloth will burn through and soon be useless. A little more oilshould be put on the cloth after using it for awhile. The clothshould be turned around and the opposite side also used. The clothwill last considerably longer if sides are changed frequently. Thesolder should not accumulate on the pan, but should be continuallyput back into the pot. The "metal, " as solder is sometimes called, should never be allowed to become red hot. 

The above method of preparing pipe is suggested for beginners onlyand will be found to be a great help to them. In actual practicethe joint must be prepared differently. The method used in trade isas follows:

The joint is used to join two pieces of lead pipe. Take two piecesand rasp the four ends square. With the tap borer clean out the endof one pipe a trifle, then with the turn pin enlarge this end justa little as shown in the figure. Then rasp the edge off about 1/8inch as shown. Take the other piece of pipe and rasp one end as wasdone in the cup joint, making it fit into the first piece. Thenplace the two ends together and with the bending iron beat thepipe, making the joint as tight as possible. 

ROUND JOINT--45° TO RIGHT

The next position in which the beginner is to wipe a joint is on anangle of 45° to the right. 

PREPARATION. --To prepare this joint, proceed as in the horizontalround joint. I will enumerate a few of these points. A piece 12inches long of 1/2-inch pipe is cut off and the ends squared. Astrip in the center, 6 inches long, is shaved clean. Paper andpaste are put over the pipe except 2-1/2 inches in the center. Grease can be put on the pipe in between the pieces of paper andwill keep the lead from oxidizing. 

PLACING PIPE IN POSITION. --There is no need of an elaborate systemof holding the pipe in position. Take a red brick and place the 4by 8 face down. This will do for the bottom pipe. For the top ofpipe to rest on, place two bricks one above the other; this willgive the correct position. Place the pipe on the brick and with aladle full of half molten solder pour a clamp of solder over theend of the pipe. This will hold the pipe firm for wiping. Place acatch pan under the joint for solder to fall in. 

WIPING. --The method of wiping this joint is practically the same aswiping the horizontal joint. The catch cloth should be heldparallel with the bench tilting a little from front toward theback. The ladle is held the same and solder is dropped on asbefore. The ladle should be continually moving while droppingsolder, not allowing the solder to drop twice in the same place. When the solder has been worked around the pipe and is at workingheat, the solder is drawn up with both cloths and the top edgewiped first, then the bottom edge; the surplus solder is put on theunderside of the joint, and then with three or four wipes the jointis made symmetrical and finished. 

THINGS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, prepare like the horizontal joint. 

 _Second_, use brick to place in position. 

 _Third_, hold tools as in horizontal joint. 

 _Fourth_, top edge cools first, therefore, wipe it first. 

 _Fifth_, hold the wiping cloth at an angle of 45° when wiping, with fingers placed as noted in previous joint. 

 _Sixth_, make solder clamp for holding the pipe. 

ROUND JOINT 45°--LEFT

When the preceding joint is well mastered and a number of goodjoints have been wiped, turn the pipe on an angle of 45° to theleft. 

PREPARATION. --The preparation for this joint is exactly the same asfor the horizontal joint. The beginner should turn back and readcarefully concerning the perfection of the joint. Bear in mind thatthe pipe must be correctly prepared or a good joint cannot be made. The edge of the paper must be cut not torn. 

PLACING PIPE IN POSITION. --This pipe can be placed in position thesame as the preceding one. If heavy weights are placed on the endsof the pipe, a bad habit may be formed by the one learning to wipe. That is, the habit of pressing hard on the joint when wiping. Inthe preceding joint, if the beginner presses too hard, the pipewill fall off the bricks. 

WIPING. --Proceed as described for previous joints. The top edgemust be favored a little. The hot solder will run down to thebottom edge; therefore less solder should be dropped on it than onthe top edge. When the solder is at the proper heat for wiping itrequires only a light touch to wipe the joint. If it appearsnecessary to press hard on the joint to wipe off surplus solder, itshows that the solder is not at the correct wiping heat. 

ROUND JOINT--VERTICAL

PREPARATION. --This joint can be prepared exactly like the precedingone. In fact, the same piece of pipe can be used throughout. Whenpreparing this joint the end that is to be on the bottom should bewell covered with paper. 

PLACING IN POSITION. --The best way to hold this joint in positionfor wiping is to stand the pipe upright on one end with the panunderneath. A piece of furring strip should be run from the top ofthe pipe to the wall. Secure the strip to the wall and drive a nailthrough the strip into the bore of the pipe. Place a weight on topof the strip and the pipe is ready. 

WIPING. --The procedure of wiping this joint is entirely differentfrom that in the other positions. The solder is thrown onto thejoint from the ladle. The catch cloth is held up to the pipe and asmuch solder as possible is held on to the pipe. Move the ladlearound the joint, throwing a little solder on as the ladle ismoved. Notice now that all the solder runs to the bottom edge, leaving the top edge cold. The solder that accumulates on thebottom edge should be drawn up to the top edge with the cloth. Then splash more solder on to the top edge and as the solder runsdown the pipe catch it with the cloth and draw it up again. Thesolder can be worked around and up and down the joint, but alwayskeep the top edge covered with hot solder. The solder is likely todrop off the joint entirely unless watched closely. When thecorrect heat is obtained, drop the ladle. Take the wiping cloth inthe right hand and with the fingers spread, clean off the top edgequickly, then shape the joint with the one cloth. With a littlepractice you will gain this knack. The joint can then be wiped. Theleft hand can steady the pipe. Spread the index finger and thirdfinger to opposite sides of the cloth and wipe around the joint. 

CHAPTER VI

PREPARING AND WIPING JOINTS (_Continued_)

TWO-INCH BRASS FERRULE

MATERIALS. --The beginner should continue wiping the vertical roundjoint until he is able to obtain a symmetrical bulb. A joint shouldbe wiped in each of the foregoing positions for exhibitionpurposes, so that the beginner can have before him the best workand strive to make the next joint better. This next joint, the2-inch brass ferrule, is wiped in an upright position. Thematerials necessary are the 2-inch brass ferrule, 6 inches of2-inch light lead pipe, paste and paper, 1/2 and 1/2 solder, rosin, wiping solder, catch pan, and supports. 

[Illustration: FIG. 24. ]

TOOLS REQUIRED. --The tools necessary for this work are as follows:the saw, rasp, drift plug, dresser, file, soldering iron, bendingirons, wiping cloths, shave hook, and ladle. 

PREPARATION. --The lead pipe must be fitted into the brass ferrule. The brass ferrule has to be tinned first. To do this, proceed asfollows: file the ferrule for about 2 inches on the tapered end. Donot file too deep, but just enough to expose the pure bright metal. Now measure from the small end 1-1/4 inches down toward the beadedend. From this point to the bead, cover the brass with paste andpaper. No paste must get on the 1-1/4-in. Filed end. This endshould not be touched with the fingers. If paste gets on it, theprocess of filing must be done over again as the solder will notstick where there is paste. If the brass ferrule is filed while thepaper is on the brass, the filing will destroy the straight edge ofthe paper and an even joint cannot be made. It would therefore benecessary to re-paper the brass. Take some powdered rosin and coverthe filed end of the ferrule with molten solder using the rosin asa flux. Do not dip the end of the ferrule into the hot wipingsolder to tin it or pour wiping solder on the brass ferrule. Thismethod of tinning the ferrule will spoil the wiping solder. Alwaysuse the soldering iron to tin the ferrule as explained above. Alittle practice will develop the use of the iron in the hands ofthe beginner so that this tinning process will be done veryrapidly. The iron should be put on to heat when the paper is beingpasted on the brass; the iron will then be ready for use whenneeded. 

PREPARING THE LEAD. --The ends of the lead pipe must be squared withthe rasp. All kinks and dents are taken out by using the drift plugand driving it through the pipe. Take a piece of smooth pine stickand start to beat in the end of the lead pipe to fit the brassferrule. The pipe should be beaten in starting about 3/4 inchesfrom the end. It should be beaten in very slowly until it fits theferrule. The pipe is held in the hand all the time and considerabletime should be spent on this as it is the first time the beating inof lead pipe has been called for. The knack of doing this comesonly by slow and continued practice. The lead must be "humored"into shape and not "driven" into shape. The end of the pipe istapered still more by rasping off the end. About 3/4 inch shouldextend into the brass ferrule. With the bending irons, the leadextending into the brass ferrule is beaten against the inside wallof the ferrule. A good way to do this is to wedge the lead pipe inas much as possible at first, then lay the work flat on the bench, in which position it is more easily worked. The sketch should bethoroughly studied and each notation be perfectly understood, before proceeding with the work. Now that the lead pipe isperfectly fitted into place, it is prepared for wiping. The jointoverall will be 2-1/2 inches. As we have already allowed 1-1/4inches on the brass ferrule for the joint, the lead will have to becleaned that much more. With the shave hook, shave the end of thepipe that has been fitted into the brass ferrule. A space about 4inches should be cleaned. This will give a cleaned surface freefrom dirt and grease for the paste and paper to adhere to. Nextpaste the paper in place. The lead pipe can be entirely covered, or3 or 4 inches only, above the 1-1/4 inches allowed for the joint. The space between the paper on the brass and the paper on the leadshould now be 2-1/2 inches. The paste and paper should now beallowed to dry. 

SUPPORTING THE PIPE. --This joint is wiped with the ferrule down onthe bench. A flat pan is laid on the bench and the ferrule stoodupon it. A weight on top of the lead pipe is all that is necessary. If this does not make the pipe rigid enough for the beginner, thena support similar to the round vertical joint support can be used. The beginner is advised, however, to practice the wiping of thisjoint with only the weight to hold it in position. The beginnerwill then be required to wipe the joint while the solder is hot, when it does not require a heavy pressure against the solder towipe it in shape. These wiped joints should be supported in placenear the furnace that heats the solder so that the solder will behandy for wiping. 

[Illustration: FIG. 25. --Two-inch brass ferrule. ]

WIPING. --Wiping this joint brings in some of the methods of theround vertical joint. If that joint was thoroughly mastered, thisjoint will be wiped considerably more easily. The ladle is held inthe right hand and the solder splashed on the joint. The catchcloth is held in the left hand and some of the solder is caught andbrought up on the top edge. The top edge cools quickly as all thehot solder runs down to the bottom edge and into the pan. As thesolder accumulates on the bottom edge, it is drawn up on the topedge, and in this manner the top edge is kept hot. When the soldercan be worked freely around the pipe and the edges are hot, thejoint is ready to wipe. The ladle is laid down and the wiping clothis taken in the right hand and the top edge of the joint cleaned onone side. Then the wiping cloth is changed to the left hand and theother side of the top edge is cleaned. Holding the cloth in onehand with the index and the third fingers spread to the outsidecorners of the cloth, the cloth is passed around the joint quickly. To get an even and symmetrical joint, it is necessary to make twoor three passes around the joint holding the cloth first in theright and then in the left hand. The free hand is used to steadythe work. This joint should be wiped very slim to allow room forthe caulking irons to pass by it and get into the hub of the pipe. Constant wiping on the brass ferrule will result in the tinning onthe brass ferrule coming off. The ferrule will look black when thishappens and will thus be recognized. The wiping should then bestopped and the ferrule filed and tinned in the same manner as itwas done at first. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, material--6 inches of 2-inch light lead pipe and one 2-inch brass ferrule. 

 _Second_, tin ferrule, using soldering iron. 

 _Third_, use a soft pine stick for a dresser. 

 _Fourth_, fit the lead into the ferrule. 

 _Fifth_, clean and paper the lead. 

 _Sixth_, secure the pipe into position. 

 _Seventh_, using the catch cloth and ladle, splash solder on the joint. 

 _Eighth_, keep the top edge covered with solder. 

 _Ninth_, wipe the top edge first. 

 _Tenth_, shape and finish wiping with a few strokes. 

 _Eleventh_, tools used. 

 _Twelfth_, wipe a slim joint. 

 _Thirteenth_, steady the work with the free hand. 

 _Fourteenth_, re-tin the ferrule, if necessary. 

FOUR-INCH BRASS FERRULE

The 4-inch brass ferrule joint is the same as the 2-inch, exceptfor size. The materials needed for this joint are 6 inches of4-inch, 8-pound lead pipe, and one 4-inch brass ferrule, one _full_pot of solder, some paste and paper, rosin, and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. 

TOOLS NECESSARY. --The tools required for this joint are as follows:saw, rasp, file, ladle, soldering iron, dresser, bending irons, shave hook, and wiping cloths. 

PREPARATION. --_Lead Pipe. _--With the saw cut off 6 inches of4-inch lead pipe. This pipe comes in lengths and should be for thiswork about 8 pounds to the foot in weight. The pipe may be dentedbadly, but these dents can be taken out as follows: Take a piece of2-inch iron pipe and put it in a vise. The lead pipe can be slippedover this iron pipe and any dents taken out easily by beating withthe dresser. One end of the lead pipe is beaten with the dresseruntil it fits into the ferrule. The end is then rasped a little. Then, after the brass ferrule has been tinned, the pipe is fittedinto it and beaten out against the inside wall of the brass ferruleand a tight joint is made. The lead is next cleaned with the shavehook and paper is pasted on as explained under the 2-inch brassferrule, the description of which should now be read over. 

[Illustration: FIG. 26. --Four-inch brass ferrule. ]

_Brass Ferrule. _--The first thing to do with the brass ferrule isto file the end that is to be wiped. When the brass ferrule isfiled, it should be done away from any part of the room where thefilings are likely to get into the solder. After the filing hasbeen done, paper is pasted on all of it except the part that is tobe tinned and no paste must get on to this part of the ferrule. Ifany paste does get on to it, the filing will have to be done overagain. When using paste and paper, neatness must be cultivated, orpaste will be spread over parts of the pipe that are supposed notto have any paste on them. Next, take the soldering iron and heatit. Take some rosin and put it on the exposed part of the ferrule. With the hot soldering iron proceed to tin the brass ferrule, asexplained before, with 1/2 and 1/2 solder, using rosin as a flux. Now the lead pipe that has previously been prepared is fitted intothe ferrule. 

SUPPORTING. --Set the brass ferrule on a catch pan. The lead pipe isupright. A weight placed on top of the lead pipe will steady thepipe for wiping. When the joint is wiped the free hand can hold thepipe if the weight is not sufficient to support it. 

[Illustration: FIG. 27. --Four-inch brass ferrule. ]

WIPING. --Splash the solder on the joint from the ladle, in the samemanner as was employed in the two preceding joints. To get theproper heat on the 4-inch joint a little more speed is necessary, also the constant working of the solder around the pipe. The ladleis constantly moved around the pipe so that all parts of the pipewill be evenly heated and come into contact with the hot solderdirect from the ladle. When the solder works freely around the pipeand the top edge is hot, the joint is shaped by holding the wipingcloth in the right hand, with the index and the middle fingersspread to the opposite corners of the cloth. The fingers are placedone on the top edge and one on the bottom edge. The cloth is thenpassed around the joint as far as possible. Then the cloth is takenin the left hand, with the fingers spread, and passed around therest of the joint. If the solder does not take the shape of thecloth readily, then the solder is not at the right heat. This jointshould be wiped very slim to allow room for the caulking tools. When this joint is once started, it should not be left until ithas been wiped, otherwise a large amount of solder will accumulateon the joint and will be hard to get off. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, material. 

 _Second_, tools. 

 _Third_, tin ferrule. 

 _Fourth_, use the dresser to fit the lead into the ferrule. 

 _Fifth_, clean the lead with the shave hook, and paper. 

 _Sixth_, use the catch cloth and ladle. 

 _Seventh_, keep the top edge covered with hot solder. 

 _Eighth_, wipe the top edge first. 

 _Ninth_, make a slim joint. 

 _Tenth_, steady the work with the free hand. 

STOP COCK

MATERIALS REQUIRED. --The materials used for this joint are asfollows: two pieces of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe 9 incheslong, each; one 1/2-inch plug stop cock for lead pipe; paste andpaper; solder; 1/2 and 1/2 solder; rosin; catch pan and supports. 

[Illustration: FIG. 28. ]

TOOLS NECESSARY. --The tools necessary for this job are as follows:saw, rasp, file, turn plug, shave hook, bending irons, hammer, ladle, soldering iron, and wiping cloths. 

PREPARATION. --There are two joints to be wiped on this job and thestop cock is supported only by the rigid fitting of the lead pipe. Therefore the preparation must be thoroughly done. The brass stopwill be prepared first. 

_Brass. _--The two ends of the stop cock are filed bright, thenpapered and tinned. This operation is the same, only on a smallerscale, as the tinning of the 2-inch and the 4-inch brass ferrule. The paper is pasted over the entire stop cock, except the two ends, which are tinned for about 1-1/4 inches. 

_Lead Pipe. _--After the lead pipe has been cut off from the coil, the ends are squared with the rasp. One end of each piece is reamedout a little with the tap borer and spread a trifle with the turnpin. With the rasp, take off the outside edge of the end that hasbeen spread. The sketch will show this and give the angle at whichthe edge is to be rasped. The stop cock is now fitted into the leadpipe. The brass should enter at least 1/4 inch, then the lead isbeaten against the brass until a tight joint is made. The other endof the brass stop is fitted into the other piece of the lead pipeand a perfect fit is made. The fitting of these two joints must berigid as upon them depends the stability of the joint support. Whenthese ends of the lead pipe have been fitted, the pipe is cleanedwith the shave hook and paper is pasted on, allowing 1-1/2 inchesfor the joint. Both pieces of pipe are prepared at the same time asboth ends are wiped at the same time. 

SUPPORTING. --The three pieces of pipe should be so wedged togetherthat they will not fall apart when put in position for wiping. Thebricks for supporting the pipe are placed the same as in thesupport of the horizontal round joint. The lead pipe ends are laidon the bricks. This brings the stop cock in the center without anysupport. If it were not for the substantial fit between it and thelead pipe, it would not stay in place. Solder straps can be putover each end of the lead pipe. Weights can be used to advantage. 

WIPING. --When getting the heat up for these joints, pour the solderover the two joints and over the stop cock. This gets the heatproperly distributed, so that both joints can be wiped while thebrass stop is heated. Get the proper heat up on one joint and thenthe other. Come back to the first joint and wipe it and then thesecond one. Both joints should be wiped so as to have the sameshape. The novice will experience some trouble when wiping thisjoint in getting the brass edge hot. Heating up the two jointstogether will in a large degree offset this trouble. Some mechanicstake out the lever handle stop to lessen the amount of brass toheat. This is never done by a good mechanic as the two pieces willnever fit together again and make a tight joint. If the plug isleft in place, both the plug and body will expand equally and thepieces will fit perfectly. When wiping is started on these joints, the beginner must stay at it continually. When the brass is heated, the finished wiping can be tried over and over again. If this wayis not followed, the beginner will find that most of his time willbe spent trying to get a heat on the brass. 

[Illustration: FIG. 29. --Stop cock. ]

BRANCH JOINT

MATERIALS NEEDED. --The materials necessary to complete this job areas follows: 12 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe for therun; 6 inches of 1/2-inch extra strong lead pipe for the branch;paste and paper, and solder. 

TOOLS NECESSARY. --The tools necessary for this job are the saw, bending irons, rasp, tap borer, ladle, wiping cloths, and the shavehook. 

[Illustration: FIG. 30. --Branch joint. ]

PREPARATION. --The preparation of this joint requires the skill ofthe beginner more than any of the preceding joints. The tapping ofthe 5/8 pipe for the branch connection, pasting and cutting thepaper, require the utmost care and precision. The 5/8-inch pipe istapped with the tap borer in the center. The tap borer is used bygrasping the handle firmly and putting the cutting point on themark and then pressing down on the handle. This forces the pointinto the lead. Now turn the tool and a piece of lead will be boredout. Continue this operation and a hole will very soon appear inthe lead. A hole just large enough to allow the bending irons toenter is made. The opening of the hole is completed with thebending iron, working the lead back slowly into place. Do notattempt to drive the lead back around the hole with a few strokes. One bending iron is inserted and this iron is struck with anotheriron or hammer. After a number of strokes the opening will be ofsufficient size. The bent end of iron is inserted into the hole andthe bent part enters the bore of the pipe. This iron is struck insuch a way as to force the lead around the hole up, rather thanback. Now with the straight end of irons open the sides. When thewall of pipe has been driven up a little the hole can be enlargedby driving back the lead. This procedure will form a collar aroundthe hole to steady the branch pipe. Good workmanship will result inhaving a good substantial collar around the opening. The branchshould now be fitted. Clean the pipe with the shave hook for about2 inches on each side of the opening. With compasses set at 1-1/8inches, mark off a space on each side of the branch on the run, oron the 5/8-inch pipe. On the sides of the pipe the two lines shouldbe joined with an even and symmetrical curve. A good way to makethis curve is with the shave hook. Now take a folded piece of paperand cut out the shape of one-half of the joint, then open the foldand the entire ellipse will be made. When this paper is cut, asharp knife is used, otherwise a ragged edge will be made and agood finish of joint is impossible. The paper is now pasted and puton the pipe. The surplus paste on the edge of the paper should bewiped off with the fingers before the paper is put on the pipe. This prevents any paste squeezing out on the joint. The branch isnow taken and perfectly fitted into the run. The end is cleanedwith the shave hook and paper is pasted on the pipe, leaving 1-1/8inches of cleaned surface for wiping. The paste and the papershould now be allowed to dry. The position for wiping this joint isto have the run horizontal and the branch on an angle of 45°pointing away from the wiper. Figure 30 will bring out the aboveexplanation very vividly. 

SUPPORTING. --The run of this joint is laid flat on the table andthe branch inserted in its proper place. With one hand hold it inplace, with the other, use the bending iron, tap the collar on therun against the branch, wedging it in place good and strong so thatno solder can leak through. If the branch is tapered with the raspas shown the joint can be made very tight. The run of the pipe isnow laid on two bricks as was done with the horizontal joint. Thebranch is laid over on a pile of bricks or wood at an angle of 45°. The best way to secure this joint is to pour some half-moltensolder on the ends of pipe and brick, making a solder clamp. Thisbranch does not need any clamp or weight if it is properly enteredinto the run. A strap of solder can be run over the end of pipe iffound necessary. Place the catch pan under the joint and then thepipe will be ready to wipe. 

WIPING. --In wiping this joint, the catch cloth is used not only tocatch the solder as it drops off from the pipe, but also to holdthe hot solder against the pipe to heat the under side of thejoint. Test the solder and see if it is the correct heat forwiping. If so, prepare for wiping. After heating the ladle, takesome solder in it and proceed to drop the molten solder on thejoint. The ladle is moved constantly as the solder is dropped onthe run and then on the branch to get the entire joint to theproper heat. As the solder drops off from the joint, it is caughton the catch cloth and brought up on the top of the joint where itis re-melted by dropping hot solder on it. Then the hot solder isheld in the cloth against the under side of the joint to get theunder side properly heated. The solder is worked around all partsof the joint. When the heat is got up sufficiently and the solderworks freely around the joint, the branch cloth is taken and eachedge of the joint is wiped clean. Any surplus solder is brought upon top of the joint and then wiped on the catch cloth. This solderis then put on the under side of the joint. With the branch clothreach way around the joint and wipe each side, bringing the clotheach time to the top and then off the joint. The last wipe isdirectly across the top, wiping off any surplus solder that mayhave accumulated from wiping the sides. The difficulty with thisjoint is in getting the top and bottom to have an equal amount ofsolder. With a little practice and by watching each motion yourfaults can be noted and remedied. If the paper starts to come off, it should be re-papered at once. When the joint is finished, itshould be left in position until the solder has had time to set andcool, otherwise the branch will break off and considerable timewill be lost in correcting the trouble. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, the use of the tap borer. 

 _Second_, the use of the bending irons. 

 _Third_, do not allow the bending irons to touch the inside walls of the pipe when stretching the opening. 

 _Fourth_, secure the branch into the run. 

 _Fifth_, secure the pipes into position for wiping. 

 _Sixth_, spread the heat on the edges and the bottom of the joint. 

 _Seventh_, wipe with the branch cloth. 

 _Eighth_, cut the paper. 

 _Ninth_, mark the outline of the joint. 

BRANCH JOINT PLACED FLAT

When the wiper has mastered the branch joint placed at an angle of45°, he can proceed to wipe the joint placed in the next position, which is flat. 

PREPARATION. --The preparation of this joint is identical with thepreceding one placed at an angle of 45°. If a new joint is to beprepared, it would be well to pay strict attention to the details, such as keeping the paste on the paper only and having the edge ofthe paper cut perfectly smooth and even. Before putting on thepaper see that the pipe is free from all grease and dirt. The pasteand paper will stick better if all the dirt is removed. The branchshould be well fitted into the run of the pipe so that no solderwill get into the bore of the pipe. The branch should not extendinto the run of pipe enough to obstruct the bore of it. If theinstructions for preparing the pipe are not carried out asdetailed, the wiper will experience some trouble that he may findhard to overcome. 

SUPPORTING. --The run can be supported on bricks. The branch can besupported on a brick placed at its end the same height as the run. This will bring the joint in the correct flat position. The branchshould point away from the wiper. Solder straps can now be pouredover the ends of each pipe. If weights are used to hold the pipefirm instead of solder straps, they should be so placed that theywill not interfere with the hands when wiping. 

WIPING. --The wiping of this joint is more difficult as the beginnerwill experience trouble in heating the bottom and keeping thesolder on the bottom. Solder is dropped on the joint and along thepipe so as to bring the pipe to the proper wiping heat. Some solderwill accumulate on top of the joint. This is melted off on thecatch cloth and this hot solder held against the bottom of thejoint. This operation is repeated until the bottom as well as thetop of the joint is heated properly. When the solder can be workedfreely around the pipe, the branch cloth is taken and each side iswiped from the bottom toward the top. Solder is accumulated on thetop where it is wiped off on the catch cloth and put on the bottomof the joint. Now reach way around each side and wipe the edge andbody of the joint, a wipe across the top completing the joint. Thebottom can be wiped with a cross wipe also if desired. The top andthe bottom should be identical. Notice carefully the drawing ofthis joint and endeavor to have the same lines. The perfecting ofthese joints comes only with patient practice. The beginner mustnot get discouraged because of a burn or two. As soon as confidencein oneself has been gained, the possibility of burning the fingersis entirely eliminated. 

BRANCH VERTICAL

The materials, tools, and preparation for this joint placed in avertical position are just the same, practically, as those in thepreceding branch joints. One or two points wherein they differ arementioned below. To rigidly support the joint for wiping, allow therun of the pipe to rest on some bricks as before mentioned, withthe branch looking up. Now take a piece of wood and drive a nailthrough one end of it about 1 inch from the edge. Let this nailenter the bore of the vertical branch. The wood is allowed to reston the back of the bench or is braced against the wall. Supportingthe pipes in this way will allow the wiper perfect freedom. Whenwiping this joint, splash the solder on from the ladle as on theupright joint. As all the sides of this joint can be seen, it isnot a difficult matter to make a perfectly symmetrical solder bulb. When the proper heat is gained, the top edge of the joint is wipedfirst, then the lower curved edge, using the branch cloth. The bodyof the joint is then wiped and the joint finished with a crosswipe, if necessary. 

BRANCH HORIZONTAL

The next position for this joint is to have the branch pipehorizontal and the run vertical. The materials, tools andpreparation for this joint are the same as for the preceding ones. The supporting and wiping differ a little. 

SUPPORTING. --One end of the run is placed on the catch pan. Theother end is held in place the same way as the branch was held inthe preceding joint. If the pictures of this joint are carefullylooked over, the methods employed to hold the pipe will be readilynoted. The branch is best held by inserting one end of a bendingiron in the bore of the pipe and placing the other end of the ironon a brick built up to the right height. The iron should beweighted to keep the joint from swaying. 

WIPING. --The solder is now dropped on the branch as in the roundjoint, and splashed on the vertical run as in the upright joint. Sufficient solder is put on the joint to keep the edges coveredwith hot solder. Solder is worked around the joint until all partsof it are thoroughly heated and the solder works easily, then allthe edges are wiped clean. The top half is then wiped evenly andthe bottom half wiped to match the top half. A cross wipe in frontcompletes the joint. When this cross wipe is made on any joint, athick edge of solder must not be left. The edge must be wipedclean. This joint should be wiped first with the branch pointing tothe right and then with the branch pointing to the left. It willtake the beginner some time to master these branch joints, for notonly must they be wiped symmetrically for the sake of appearances, but they must be wiped while the solder is hot to secure a tightjoint. A joint that is wiped with solder that is too cold will beporous and will leak when put under pressure. With care the samepipe can be used throughout for all the positions of this branchjoint. 

ONE AND ONE-HALF-INCH BRANCH JOINT

Upon the completion of the small sized branch joint in its variousangles, the 1-1/2-inch branch joint is to be wiped. This branchjoint is wiped in the same positions as the 5/8 branch was wiped. The pipe being larger, there is more solder for the wiper tohandle, and the edges to keep clean and to wipe are longer. 

MATERIALS NEEDED. --The materials needed for this job are 12 inchesof 1-1/2-inch light lead pipe for the run, and 6 inches of1-1/2-inch pipe for the branch, paste, paper, solder, and catchpan. 

TOOLS NEEDED. --The tools necessary for this job are the saw, rasp, shave hook, bending irons, drift plug, hammer, ladle, wipingcloths, and tap borer. 

PREPARATION. --To an experienced wiper, the procedure of preparingthis joint and wiping it are so near like the 5/8-branch joint thata detailed description would be unnecessary; but for the benefit ofthe beginner, I will repeat the details as they apply to thisparticular joint and thereby avoid any error. We will take thepreparation of the run first. Square the two ends of the pipe withthe rasp. Mark off the center of the pipe. With the round part ofthe rasp, held at right angles with the pipe, proceed to rasp downthe crown of pipe where the center mark was made. Do not raspthrough the wall of the pipe, but just enough so that the tap borerwill enter the pipe with only a slight pressure. With the tapborer, tap a hole large enough for the bending irons to enter. Nowproceed to enlarge the hole, first forcing the edges up and thenforcing them back, making the hole larger and making a collararound the hole at the same time. Continue to open the pipe untilthe aperture is large enough for the branch pipe to enter. Thebending irons must not come into contact with the inside wall ofthe pipe, for if they do the inside bore will be marred and be veryragged. As these joints are usually used on waste lines, theseragged places make an ideal place for lint and grease to collectand cause a stoppage. To make the inside of the hole even, a pieceof 1/2-inch pipe can be used in place of the bending irons. To cutout the oval from a piece of paper to fit the joint, fold thepaper and cut out one-half of the oval. Now unfold the paper andthe complete oval is obtained. The measurements of the oval aretaken from Fig. 30, 1-1/8 inches each side of the branch lengthwiseof the run. These two lines are connected with a curved line asshown. This curved line can be made with the shave hook. Take thelarge edge of the shave hook and roll it along between the lines tobe joined. A little practice will perfect one in doing thisquickly. The beginner should make a number of these ovals so thathe can get them perfect. The graceful appearance of this jointdepends upon the neatness with which it is prepared. I do not wantthe beginner to think that a graceful shape of the joint is allthat is to be desired or that it is the most essential point. Further along, perhaps, more vital requirements will be brought outand the beginner will be made acquainted with them. 

The ends of the 6-inch piece are now squared with the rasp. Theedges of one end are rasped off as shown in the sketch, making awedged fit into the run. This end is then cleaned with the shavehook. Paper is then pasted on to cover the pipe except the 1-1/8inches cleaned on the end. This cleaned part forms part of thejoint, therefore no paste or paper must be put on it. The pipe isnow fitted into the run and the collar beaten against it with thebending irons. The run is now cleaned with the shave hook for about3 inches each side of the center. The paper oval cut out is nowpasted on the joint. The paste and paper are then allowed to drybefore they are handled further. 

SUPPORTING. --The supporting of this joint, which is placed with thebranch on an angle of 45° pointing away from the wiper, is not adifficult matter. The beginner can use his own ingenuity forsupporting the pipe if conditions do not warrant the using of themethods previously described. 

WIPING. --The solder should now be tested for heat. If the solder isat the proper heat, the ladle is taken and heated. Take a ladlefull of solder and drop the solder on the joint. The lead of whichthis branch joint is made is considerably lighter than any leadthat has been used before. Therefore, the beginner must drop thesolder on carefully, making sure that the solder is not dropped onthe same spot, for a hole can be burned through the pipe veryquickly. The ladle must be kept moving, then the solder will notburn through the pipe. The heat is got up on the pipe by droppingthe solder on the run and on the branch, catching the surplussolder on the catch cloth and heating the under side of the jointwith it. To form the joint, distribute the solder and then wipe itinto shape. Notice that I said wipe it into shape. A beginner isvery apt to try to push or poke it into shape. This must not bedone as it has a tendency to make the joint lumpy. All the edgesare wiped off clean first, then the body of the joint is shaped andwiped. When forming the joint, be sure that the bottom and the topare symmetrical. Do not have one-half larger than the other. Thelast wiping strokes are made swiftly and rapidly. If the wiper willwatch his movements and note the results and then try to improvethem, keeping in mind that a symmetrical joint is wanted with thinedges, perfection in wiping will come much more quickly than if noattention is paid to the strokes made when wiping. 

BRANCH JOINT WIPED FLAT

The materials required for this joint do not differ from thepreceding one. If the pipe used for the branch joint at a 45° angleis in good shape, it can be used for this joint by simply changingpositions. The tools needed will not be any different. The ladleand the wiping cloths, of course will be required. A pair of plierscan be used to advantage in picking up the hot solder. The wipingcloths should receive a little more oil to keep them soft andpliable. Oil the edges of the cloths well. 

SUPPORTING. --To support this pipe for wiping have each end rest ona brick. Each end can be weighted to hold it in place. 

WIPING. --To wipe this joint, proceed to drop the solder on thejoint. When the pipe is thoroughly heated and the solder worksfreely around the pipe the joint can be wiped. The procedure islike the preceding one. The wiper is cautioned to move the ladleconstantly while dropping the solder. 

BRANCH HELD VERTICAL

After a number of the previous joints have been wiped successfully, the pipe is placed in such a position that the branch will bevertical. The supporting of the pipe to hold the joint in thisposition for wiping is very easily done after handling the 5/8-in. Joint in this position. The following points may be found helpful:The solder is splashed on the joint from the ladle. The top edge ofthe joint is kept hot by keeping the solder covering it. When theproper heat has been got up, the top edge is wiped first, then thebottom edges both front and back. The body of the joint is wipedlast and a cross wipe finishes the joint. I have found that thebeginner in many cases, when this joint is reached, tries to wipeit with many short strokes. The habit is a bad one and should bestopped as soon as noticed. Learn to wipe the top edge with onlytwo strokes, the bottom edge with not more than four, the body ofthe joint with four, and one cross wipe to finish. This jointshould be finished as symmetrically as possible and wiped while thesolder is hot. 

RUN HELD VERTICALLY

When the vertical branch has been conquered and the wiper can get agood joint every time it is tried, the pipe can be changed to adifferent position. The run is placed in a vertical position andthe branch horizontally to the left. The catch pan is put under theend of the pipe. Follow the same directions for supporting thisjoint as were given under the 5/8-in. Branch placed in a similarposition. The wiping of this joint is so nearly like the precedingbranch joints that I will not give any instructions at all. Thisjoint is finished at the same point that the other branch jointsare finished. However, there are one or two matters that should bekept in mind. Some of the small matters are often overlooked andshould be called to mind occasionally. Do not allow the solder toaccumulate in the pan. If the cloths are burned, they should beturned, or new ones made. If the paper has started to come off fromthe pipe, new paper should be put on at once. Test the solderoccasionally and see that it does not get too hot. Upon completionof the joint in this position, the branch joint in its variouspositions is finished. The beginner has found out while wipingthese various joints a number of points that were not mentioned inmy description. No amount of detailed description will make a goodjoint wiper. Patience and practice are as important in joint wipingas good preparation and good solder. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, materials--18 inches of 1-1/2-in. Lead pipe. 

 _Second_, use of tools. 

 _Third_, keep bending irons away from the wall of the pipe. 

 _Fourth_, make a good collar around the opening. 

 _Fifth_, make a tight fit with branch and run. 

 _Sixth_, hot solder will quickly burn through the lead. 

 _Seventh_, use branch cloth for wiping. 

 _Eighth_, cut out paper for joint even and symmetrical. 

BIB

This joint is another brass to lead, and is the last single jointto be wiped in this course of joint wiping. 

MATERIALS NEEDED. --The materials required for this joint are asfollows: 10 inches of 5/8-inch extra strong lead pipe; one 1/2-inchbrass sink bib for lead pipe; one pot of solder, paste and paper, 1/2 and 1/2 solder, catch pan, and supports. 

[Illustration: FIG. 31. ]

TOOLS REQUIRED. --The tools required for this job are the saw, rasp, tap borer, bending irons, file, ladle, wiping cloths, shave hook, knife and rule, soldering iron. 

PREPARATION. --To prepare the lead pipe after cutting from the coiland squaring the ends with the rasp is very similar to the 5/8-inchbranch joint. The center of the pipe is marked and a hole is madein it with the tap borer large enough to admit the bending irons. The hole is enlarged with the irons. A good substantial collar ismade around the hole to hold the bib in place. One and one-eighthinches are marked off on each side of the branch and an easy curveconnects the two. The paper is then cut out and pasted on the pipeafter it has been scraped with the shave hook. 

The end of the brass bib is filed bright and tinned with thesoldering iron and 1/2 and 1/2 solder. Before the tinning is done, paper is put on the brass, leaving only 1-1/8 inches exposed. Thetinning must be thoroughly done, or it will come off and have to bere-tinned. 

SUPPORTING. --The bib is fitted into the lead opening and the collaris forced against the bib to hold it in place and prevent anysolder from leaking through into the bore of the pipe. The bibmust not extend too far into the lead pipe or it will obstruct theflow of water. The lead pipe is laid on two bricks the same as theround joint. The bib is laid on an angle of 45° pointing away fromthe wiper. Some bricks can be piled up to the right height to holdthe bib in place and a solder strap can be made to hold it steady. The lead pipe can be held steady by weighting each end. The catchpan is now placed under the joint and everything is ready forwiping. 

[Illustration: FIG. 32. --Bib. ]

WIPING. --When the solder is hot, getting the heat on the pipe isstarted. Solder should be dropped oftener on the brass bib than onthe lead pipe. It takes more heat to heat the brass thoroughly thanit does the lead. If this is followed out, little difficulty willbe had in getting up the heat and in wiping. Use the branch clothfor wiping and make sure that all edges are perfectly cleanedbefore making the final strokes. As this is the only position thatthe joint will be wiped in, practice should be continued untilperfect joints can be obtained. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, materials needed. 

 _Second_, tools needed. 

 _Third_, use tap borer. 

 _Fourth_, enlarge hole with bending irons. 

 _Fifth_, make substantial collar around the opening. 

 _Sixth_, paper the lead. 

 _Seventh_, file the bib, then paper. 

 _Eighth_, tin the bib. 

 _Ninth_, place in position and wipe. 

DRUM TRAP

The making of the drum trap will bring out the skill of thebeginner. The entire trap is made of lead pipe. The lead willrequire a great deal of handling. Therefore, care must be exercisedin all operations to turn the trap out in a workmanlike manner. 

MATERIALS NEEDED. --The materials needed to complete this job are:10 inches of 4-inch 8-pound lead pipe; 18 inches of 1-1/2-inchlight lead pipe; paste and paper, support, solder, and catch pan. 

TOOLS NEEDED. --The tools required for this job are: saw, rasp, bending irons, shave hook, bending spring, tap borer, dresser, ladle, drift plug, and wiping cloths. 

[Illustration: FIG. 33. --Drum trap. ]

PREPARING. --Take the 10-inch piece of lead pipe and hold it in onehand, in the other hand take a pine dresser. Strike the lead pipewith the dresser. The pipe is struck about 2 inches from the endand is beaten evenly all around. The pipe is then struck nearer theend until finally the bore of the pipe is almost closed. Thisclosed end should be rounding and symmetrical. To get this shapethe pipe must be continually moved and turned. One side must not beforced in more than the other. If there are any dents in the pipeor part of the pipe is forced in too much it may be driven out asfollows: Take an old piece of 1/2-inch lead pipe and round one endof it with a hammer; this can be used by hitting the inside of theclosed end of the drum and forcing out the dents. The rounded endof the trap is not quite closed and a hole about 3/4 inch is left. This opening is closed by shaping the edges of it with the knife, making them smooth and beveled. Then a piece of lead is cut out ofsome scrap, the same shape as the hole and fitted into it. The topsurface of this fitted piece should be a little lower than thesurface of the pipe. Strike a circle, using the compasses, thecenter of the circle being the center of the inserted piece oflead. The lead inside of this circle is shaved clean with the shavehook, including the inserted piece. Paper is then pasted outside ofthe circle and should cover entirely the rest of the pipe. Theinserted piece is wiped on the pipe as follows:

WIPING END. --Stand the 4-in. Pipe in a pan with the rounded end ofthe pipe up. Be sure that the inserted piece is fitted securely. The solder is now dropped on the paper and shaved portion of thepipe. Exercise considerable care not to burn a hole in the pipe. Asthe hot solder runs off, catch some of it and draw it back on thejoint. When the solder can be manipulated freely and the pipe ishot, the joint can be wiped. The cloth is drawn across the joint, cleaning all the edges with one stroke. The joint should be shapedto complete the rounding surface of the pipe. The joint iscomparatively easy and will not occupy much time. As soon as it iswiped, cover the solder with paper. This will preserve thefreshness of the joint until all wiping is completed. 

PREPARING INLET PIPE

After the above joint is completed, the 1-1/2-in. Branch inlet pipeis prepared and wiped in place. The center of this branch ismarked on the 4-inch pipe and a hole is tapped in the pipe, usingthe tap borer. A hole large enough to admit the bending irons ismade. The hole is enlarged with the bending irons, bending the leadfirst _up_, then _back_. A piece of 1/2-inch iron pipe can be usedas a tool to finish the opening. The iron pipe is larger indiameter than the bending irons and leaves a more finished surface. The opening is made of sufficient size to admit the rasped end ofthe 1-1/2-inch pipe. When using the irons to enlarge the opening inthe pipe, be sure not to bruise any part of the trap. The1-1/2-inch pipe is now taken. The ends of this pipe are squaredwith the rasp. The drift plug is then driven through the pipe totake out any bruises or flattened places. The edge of one end israsped off to fit the opening made in the 4-inch pipe. The beginnermust strive to make a perfect fit. The accuracy with which thesepreparations are made is what helps in a large degree to bringabout a successful job. The next operation is to paper the partsnot to be wiped. The sizes of the joint should be followed as shownon the sketch. The pipe is first shaved with the shave hook, afterwhich the paper is pasted on. No paste is allowed to get on thejoint proper. The beginner should by this time have formed thehabit of being neat with his work. Therefore the getting of pasteon the joint surface shows that he is not as neat or as faradvanced as he should be. 

SUPPORTING. --The drum is laid lengthwise on the bench and blocksare put on each side to keep it from rolling, the branch uppermost. The 1-1/2-inch pipe is held in position the same way as thevertical branch was held. The catch pan is put under the drum tocatch the surplus solder. 

WIPING. --Splash the solder on the branch pipe, also on the drum. The burning through of the drum is an easy matter. Therefore do notkeep dropping the solder on one place, but keep the ladle movingcontinually. With the catch cloth draw the solder up on the branchcovering the top edge of the prepared surface. Splashing the solderon this top edge melts the solder already on and allows it to rundown on the 4-inch pipe where it is caught with the cloth and againbrought up on the top edge of the branch. When the solder worksfreely all around the joint, the top edge is wiped clean and even. Then any surplus solder is wiped off. The bottom edge is next wipedclean, after which the body of the joint is wiped into shape, together with both edges. The edges are wiped very thin so thatwhen the paper is removed the outline of the joint stands out verydistinctly. A thick edge on a joint gives an unworkmanlikeappearance to the work. The joint is finished with a cross wipe. 

The other joints are prepared and wiped the same as the one justcompleted. The 1-1/2-inch branch connection taken out of the bottomof the trap is bent. As this is the first time it has beennecessary to bend lead pipe in these jobs, I will cover thisoperation in detail. The pipe is first straightened and the driftplug driven through it. The pipe is marked where the bend is to bemade. The bending spring, size 1-1/2 inches, is put into the pipe, the center of the spring coming about where the bend is to be made. The pipe is then heated where it was marked to be bent. The properheat for this pipe is just so that the hand cannot stand being laidagainst it. The pipe is held in the hands and on the end nearestthe heat is hit against the floor at an angle. The pipe, with thefirst blow, will start to bend. With a few more strokes the desiredbend will be obtained. The bending spring can now be pulled out. Put a little water in the pipe, then put one end of the spring inthe vise, twist the pipe, and the spring will come out when thepipe is pulled away from it. The bending spring holds the pipecylindrical while it is being bent. Without the spring, the pipewould be badly crushed at the bend and rendered almost unfit forservice. Another good way to bend pipe is to plug one end and fillthe pipe full of sand, then plug the open end. The pipe is thenheated where the bend is to be made. The pipe can then be bent overthe knee. When all the joints are wiped, the paper should be takenoff and the lead cleaned with sand and water. The trap is nowcomplete except the brass clean-out to be soldered on the top. Theinside of the trap should not have any rough edges or drops ofsolder in it. 

[Illustration: FIG. 34. --Drum trap. ]

There are two other drum traps to be made. The materials needed arethe same as for the above trap except for 18 inches more of1-1/2-inch lead pipe. The support, preparation, and wiping are thesame. The beginner by this time should feel very well acquaintedwith lead and solder. Therefore, the details of these two drumtraps can be left for the beginner to work out for himself. Thesketches are very distinct and readable and will be of considerableassistance. The beginner should make these traps. 

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED. --

 _First_, use 4-inch lead pipe, 8 pounds to the foot. 

 _Second_, dresser and spring are new tools. Study their use. 

 _Third_, gradually work the trap into shape with the dresser. 

 _Fourth_, plug the hole with a piece of lead pipe. 

 _Fifth_, prepare and wipe the plugged hole first. 

 _Sixth_, prepare and wipe the 1-1/2-inch branches. 

 _Seventh_, special care should be taken to keep the work neat. 

 _Eighth_, two ways of using the bending spring. 

 _Ninth_, wipe thin edges on joints. 

 _Tenth_, do not handle finished work. 

 _Eleventh_, clean and finish the work neatly. 

THE PRACTICAL USE OF THE PRECEDING EXERCISES

In the foregoing exercises, I have confined myself to the actualwork of making the various joints. Now I will explain the practicaluse of them. 

SOLDERING IRON. --The soldering iron is a tool that is used in workthat requires heat to fuse solder and the parts to be united. Everyplumber should have at least two irons in his kit. 

THE CUP JOINT. --While the cup joint is not employed to any greatextent in modern plumbing, yet it has its use in the installationof some fixtures. Lavatories, bath and toilets are sometimesconnected with a short piece of lead on the supply. The tail pieceson the faucets can be soldered on the lead by means of a cup joint. A cup joint well made with a deep cup and the solder well fused isas strong as a wiped joint in a place of this kind. The evil of thecup joint is that some mechanics will only fuse the surface andleave the deep cup only filled with solder and not fused. Thismakes a tight joint, but extremely weak. On tin-lined pipe andblock-tin pipe the cup joint is commonly used. When making a cupjoint on block-tin pipe the soldering iron must not touch the pipeand fine solder should be used. When tin-lined pipe is beingsoldered, the tin lining must not be melted. 

OVERCAST JOINT. --The overcast joint is not commonly used, but whenthere is considerable lead work to do the plumber finds it veryhandy in places where a wiped joint would take up too much room. Weuse it for an exercise for the reason that it teaches the beginnervery rapidly the use and control of the soldering iron. 

FLAT SEAMS. --These seams are used in the construction of roofflashers, tanks (Sec. 33, Chapter XVIII) and lead safe wastes (Sec. 27, plumbing code). A hatchet iron is sometimes used on theseseams. 

WIPING CLOTHS. --The wiping cloths made of whalebone ticking makegood, serviceable, and lasting cloths. Oil only should be used tobreak the cloth in. Moleskin cloths are very good, but they arevery hard to get and cost considerably more. A plumber shouldalways keep a good supply of ticking cloths on hand. The cloths areused only for wiping. 

1/2-INCH ROUND JOINT. --This joint is the one most often required inactual practice. It serves to connect two pieces of lead pipe ofthe same or different diameters. It is also used to connect leadand other materials of which pipe is made. The workman, when hegets out on the job, finds that his work cannot be supported forwiping in such an easy and convenient position as illustrated inthe exercises. It will be necessary to wipe the joint at almostevery conceivable angle and position. The workman must employ hisingenuity to overcome any difficulties that may arise. Any draughtof air should be avoided as it will make the solder cool quickly. 

2-INCH BRASS FERRULE. --When it is found necessary to connectcast-iron and lead pipe, it is done by means of a brass ferrulewiped on the lead pipe. This joint is a very common joint and isfound on sink, tray, and bath connections, as well as in many otherconnections that have lead and cast-iron pipes for wastes. 

4-INCH BRASS FERRULE. --The 4-inch brass ferrule wiped on lead pipeis found under almost every closet. There is generally a piece oflead connecting the toilet with the soil pipe. Therefore, a brassferrule is wiped on the lead and the ferrule connected with thesoil pipe. This joint is also found on rain leader connections nearthe roof, connecting the gutter with the rain leader stack. 

STOP COCK. --When a shut-off is required in a line of lead waterpipe, these joints are used. Where it is necessary to joint leadand brass, this joint is required. The art of heat control over thelead and the brass is the essential point in these joints. 

BRANCH JOINTS 5/8 AND 1/2 INCHES. --Where it is found necessary totake a branch from a water pipe, this joint is used at theconnection. In practice, this joint may have to be wiped inpositions that are rather difficult to reach, so the wiping ofjoints in the positions called for in the exercises is exceedinglygood practice. 

BRANCH JOINTS 1-1/2 INCHES. --These joints are very common and arefound on waste and vent pipes. They are also found on urinalflush-pipe connections where the branch often is brass and the runlead. 

BIB. --When lead supplies are run directly to the bib on a sink, this joint is necessary. It becomes necessary to wipe in a piece ofbrass for a brass-pipe connection from a lead pipe, in which casethis joint is called for. 

THE DRUM TRAP. --The drum trap is used under sinks, baths, showers, and trays. 

CHAPTER VII

LAYING TERRA-COTTA AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO PUBLIC SEWERS. WATERCONNECTIONS TO MAINS IN STREETS

TERRA-COTTA PIPE

One of the first pieces of work which a plumber is called upon todo, when building operations commence, is to run in the terra-cottasewer from the street sewer into the foundation wall. 

[Illustration: FIG. 35. --Connection of house sewer to main sewer. ]

When the street sewer is laid, Y-branches are left every few feet. A record of the branches and their distance from the manhole iskept generally in the Department of Sewers or Public Works. Therefore, the exact measurement of any branch can be obtained andthe branch found by digging down to the depth of the sewer. Abranch should be chosen so that the pipe can be laid with a pitch, the same way as the main sewer pitches. This can be done by gettingthe measurements of two of these branches and choosing the one thatwill serve best. When there is a brick sewer in the street and nobranches left out, the sewer must be tapped wherever the housesewer requires it (see Fig. 35). 

DIGGING TRENCHES. --After the measurements and location of the housesewer and sewer branches are properly located, the digging of thetrench is started. The methods employed to dig the trench varyaccording to the nature of the ground, that is, whether it is sand, rock, or wet ground. A line should be struck from sewer tofoundation wall to insure a straight trench. 

[Illustration: FIG. 36. --Laying of plank for trench dug in sandyground. ]

SANDY GROUND. --If the ground is sandy, the sides of the trench willhave to be sheathed or planked and the planks braced so as toprevent the bank caving in. As the trench is dug deeper, the planksare driven down. When the trench is very deep, a second row ofplanking is necessary. The planks must be kept well down to thebottom of the trench and close together, otherwise the sand willrun in. It is well to test the planking as progress is made bytamping the sand on the bank side of the planks. 

GRAVEL. --Where the ground is mostly gravel and well packed, theabove method of planking is unnecessary. The bank should have a fewstringers and braces to support it. When only a few planks are usedthe term "corduroy the bank" is used (see Fig. 37). 

[Illustration: FIG. 37. --Arrangement of plank for gravel. ]

ROCK. --Where rock is encountered, blasting is resorted to. Theplumber should not attempt to handle a job requiring the use ofpowder. It is dangerous in the hands of a person not used tohandling it and the work should be sublet. 

A sketch of the two methods above for planking trenches is givenand a little study will make them clear. 

LAYING OF PIPE

The pipe should be laid on the bottom of the trench to a pitch ofat least 1/4 inch per foot fall. In laying, the start should bemade at the street sewer with hubs of pipe toward the building. Thetrench should be dug within a few inches of the bottom of thepipe, then as the pipe is laid the exact depth is dug out, thesurplus dirt being thrown on the pipe already laid. The body lengthof pipe should be on solid foundation. A space dug out for each hubas shown in Fig. 38 allows for this, also allows for the propercementing of joints. To get the proper pitch of pipe, take forexample 1/4 inch per foot, a level 2 feet long with a piece of woodor metal on one end 1/2 inch thick will answer. The end with the1/2-inch piece on should be on the lower hub and the other endresting on the hub of the pipe about to be put in place. When thebubble shows level, then the pipe has the 1/4-inch fall per foot. If a tile trap is used, it should be laid level, otherwise the sealwill be weakened or entirely broken. 

[Illustration: FIG. 38. --Laying terra-cotta pipe. ]

CUTTING. --The cutting of tile is not difficult, but must be donecarefully or the pipe will crack or a piece will be broken out, thus making the pipe worthless. To cut tile or terra-cotta pipe, stand the pipe on end with the hub down, fill the pipe with sand tothe point of cutting. With a sharp chisel and hammer cut around thepipe two or three times and the pipe will crack around practicallystraight. 

CEMENTING. --If the pipe is free from cracks, the only possible wayroots can get into the inside of terra-cotta pipe is through thecement joint. There are two ways of making these joints. Both waysare explained below and are used today on terra-cotta work. 

 _First. _--The bottom of the hub of pipe in place is filled with cement and the straight end of the next piece of pipe is laid in place, then more cement is placed into the hub until the space between the hub and the pipe is filled. In a trench, a trowel is rather unhandy to work with, while the hands can be used to better advantage. The cement can be forced into place with the hands and then surfaced with a trowel. The rest of the operation is to swab out the inside joint to remove any cement that perchance was forced through the joint (see Fig. 39). The cement used should be 1/2 cement and 1/2 clean sharp sand. 

 _Second. _--Half of the space between the hub and the pipe is first packed with oakum and then the other half filled with cement of the same proportions as that used above. 

[Illustration: FIG. 39. --Showing use of the swab. ]

LAYING PIPE IN TUNNELS

[Illustration: FIG. 40. --Pushing pipe through tunnel. ]

If the pipe must be run through a tunnel and there are perhapsthree or four joints that cannot be reached, they should be putinto place as follows: The pipe should be laid in the trench fromthe sewer in the street as far as the tunnel, then start at theother end of the tunnel. Lay the first piece of pipe on a board, lengthwise with the board, nail two cleats in the shape of a >(Fig. 40) for the pipe to rest in; push this pipe and board intothe tunnel and then cement into its hub a second piece; push thetwo pieces in 2 feet, cement a third length into the second pieceand push the three pieces along 2 feet. A workman can be on thesewer side of the tunnel and receive the end of the pipe as it ispushed through the tunnel, and steer the pipe into the hub. Thejoints in the tunnel will not be as secure as those outside. Thisexplains how pipe is run through a tunnel. 

CONNECTING. --The proper method of connecting the house sewer withthe street sewer is shown in Fig. 35. The connection should be madeabove the spring of the arch. The pipe should extend well into thesewer so the sewage will discharge into water and not drop onsides. 

INSERTING. --To insert a tee in a line of pipe already laid, pursuethe following method (see Fig. 41): Cut or break out one joint, preserve the bottom of the hub of pipe that is in. Cut away the topof the hub on the pipe to be inserted, then place the pipe inposition and turn around until the part of the hub on the pieceinserted is on the bottom. The bottom part of the pipes now willhave a hub to receive the cement. The top part will have to becemented carefully, as it is within easy access. This can be donewithout difficulty. 

[Illustration: FIG. 41. --Inserting length of pipe. ]

While laying the pipe a stopper is used to prevent the sewer gasesand foul odors from escaping. This stopper sometimes is of tile, sometimes a plug of paper or burlap. This stopper is sometimescemented in by inexperienced men and the trouble created can onlybe guessed at. If a stopper is used, the workman must see that itis taken out. 

REFILLING. --After the pipe is laid and cemented, it should becovered and allowed to stand 24 hours to give the cement time toharden. The dirt should then be thrown in and settled by means of atamper or by flooding with water. The planks should not be takenout until the trench is well filled. To pull the plank, a chain orshoe and lever will have to be used. Where the tunnels are, dirtwill have to be rammed in with a long rammer, care being taken notto disturb the pipe. If the refill is not well rammed and tamped, the trench will settle and cause a bad depression in the streetsurface. 

TERRA-COTTA PIPE. --Terra-cotta pipe should be straight, free fromfire cracks, and salt-glazed. The inside of the hub and outside ofthe plain end should not be glazed. This allows the cement to takehold. 

 TABLE OF STANDARD TERRA-COTTA PIPE

 ------+------------+-----------------+----------+-------------- Size | Thickness, | Weight per ft. , | Depth of | Annular space | inches | pounds | socket | ------+------------+-----------------+----------+-------------- 3 | 1/2 | 7 | 1-1/2 | 1/4 4 | 1/2 | 9 | 1-5/8 | 3/8 5 | 5/8 | 12 | 1-3/4 | 3/8 6 | 5/8 | 15 | 1-7/8 | 3/8 8 | 3/4 | 23 | 2 | 3/8 9 | 13/16 | 23 | 2 | 3/8 10 | 7/8 | 35 | 2-1/8 | 3/8 12 | 1 | 45 | 2-1/4 | 1/2 15 | 1-1/8 | 60 | 2-1/2 | 1/2 18 | 1-1/4 | 85 | 2-3/4 | 1/2 20 | 1-3/8 | 100 | 3 | 1/2 ------+------------+-----------------+----------+--------------

Terra-cotta pipe should not be permitted in filled-in ground. 

Roots of trees find their way into the pipe through cracks orcement joints. When the roots get inside of the pipe they growuntil the pipe is stopped up. As the roots cannot be forced orwired out, the sewer must be relaid. The writer has seen a solidmass of roots 10 feet long taken out of a tile sewer. 

In case terra-cotta is laid in filled-in ground, there is only oneway to insure the pipe from breaking. The pipe should be laid onplanks. Then, if the ground settles, the pipe will not be broken. 

WATER CONNECTION AND SERVICE

TAPPING MAIN. --The water service for a building is put in at thesame time as the sewer is connected and run into the house. For a1-1/4-service pipe a 1/2-inch tap is furnished. The water companytaps the main, at the expense of the plumber, and inserts acorporation cock. 

[Illustration: FIG. 42. --Showing water main and sewer in sameditch. ]

DIGGING TRENCH. --The trench for the water main should be dug atleast 4-1/2 feet deep or below frost level and the trench should bekept straight. When the sewer is put in at the same time, one sideof the sewer trench can be cut out after it is filled up to thelevel of the water main. The water pipe can then be laid on thisshelf at least 2 feet away from the original trench of sewer. Sometimes the surface of the ground must not be disturbed. In thiscase small holes are dug and the pipe is pushed through or driventhrough under that portion not dug. These places are oftentunnelled (see Fig. 42). 

In digging in city streets, care should be taken not to destroy anyof the numerous pipes encountered. 

LAYING PIPE

The trench should be dug straight out from the house so the pipecan be laid and the main tapped straight out from the building. Thewater companies keep a record of these taps so that in case oftrouble the street can be opened and the water shut off. In layingthe water service, the pipe from the curb to the main should belaid first. This takes in all the pipe in the street. At the mainthere is a shut-off in the tap. Another stop with T or wheel handlemust be placed just inside the curb line. This is called a curbcock (see Fig. 43). One trench either outside or inside of the curbshould be at least 15 feet long so that a full length of pipe canbe laid in the trench. It is generally impossible to open a trenchthe full length the pipe is to be run. A trench 10 feet long isdug, then 8 feet left, and another 10- or 8-foot trench is dug andthe two are connected with a small tunnel and pipe pushed through. When the pipe has been put in place between the curb and main, thewater is turned on and the pipe flushed out. The valve at the curbshould now be shut off, and if there are any leaks they will show. The street part is now ready to fill in. At this point Fig. 43should be studied. Note the piece of lead attached to the pipe andcorporation cock. This piece of lead should be extra heavy andalways laid in place the shape of the letter S or goose neck. Incase the street should settle, this piece of lead will allow forit. These "lead connections" or "goose necks" are made as follows:3 ft. Of 5/8 lead pipe; 1-inch brass solder nipple (wiped on); onebrass corporation cock coupling (wiped on). 

LAYING PIPE. --This lead connection can be screwed on the pipe afterthe pipe is laid, then bent and coupled on the main with thecoupling. 

[Illustration: FIG. 43. --Water main from street to foundationwall. ]

After the pipe has been tested as far as the curb, the trench inthe street can be filled as described later. The pipe from the curbto the building can now be laid. If necessary to push the pipethrough a tunnel, the end of the pipe should first be capped. Startby screwing a length in the curb cock. If the other end of the pipecomes in a tunnel an additional length must be put on beforeputting in place so that an end will come in the open trench. Whenthe building is reached and before the stop cock is put on, thevalve at the curb should be opened full and the pipe flushed out. The valve can then be put on and water turned on to test the pipe. 

SETTING CURB BOX. --A cast-iron box, adjustable length, with covershould extend from the curb cock to the surface. This makes itpossible with a long rod to control the water service into thebuilding. To set a curb box some flat stones should be laid aroundthe curb cock and the box set on these stones. Then the spacearound the box and pipe should be closed in with brick or othercovering to keep the sand from washing in on the curb cock. The boxshould be adjusted for height and then held in place by placing thecurb key rod in place and holding the rod and box while the trenchis filled. The refill should be tamped evenly on all sides of thebox. 

REFILL. --In refilling the trench around the corporation cock andgoose neck, the greatest care should be taken. The writer has seencases when indifferent workmen have tossed heavy stones in theditch and broken off the corporation cock or destroyed the gooseneck. After the pipe is covered with 18 inches of refill andtunnels have been filled, water can be run in the trench and willsettle the refill. 

There are a number of special points concerning water services andtaps at mains that should not be overlooked. Take for example awater service pipe which must be run through ground whereelectricity is escaping under trolley tracks, around power houses, etc. The electricity will enter the pipe and wherever it leaves thepipe a hole is burned. The surface of the pipe in a short time willbe full of small pith marks and will soon leak. A good way to addto the life of the pipe under these conditions is to make a star ofcopper and solder it on to the pipe in the street. Another piece ofcopper should be put on the pipe near the building. The electricitywill leave the pipe by way of the points on the star. This methodmay not be a cure for electrolysis, but will add to the life of thepipe. Another method employed is to put the pipe in the center of asquare box, then fill the box with hot pitch. When this is hardenedthe pipe will have a covering that will keep out any moisture andbar electricity to a marked degree. 

MATERIALS USED. --Galvanized steel pipe does not last under ground. 

Galvanized iron, heavy lead, and brass are used. Wooden pipes wereonce used and stood years of service. No service smaller than 1-1/4should be used. 

When the water service pipe passes through the foundation wall, thepipe should not be built in, but a small arch should be built overthe pipe or a piece of XX cast-iron pipe can be used as a sleeve(Fig. 44). 

[Illustration: FIG. 44. --Free space around pipe passing throughwall. ]

POINTS TO REMEMBER. --

SEWER INSTALLATION

 _First_, select good sound pipe and fittings. 

 _Second_, locate branch connection in street sewer. 

 _Third_, lay out run of house sewer. 

 _Fourth_, take out necessary permits from departments of sewer. 

 _Fifth_, dig trench in the street, then into the house. 

 _Sixth_, lay pipe and cement joints. 

 _Seventh_, refill trench, tamping every foot. 

 _Eighth_, cast-iron pipe for sewer is found under another heading. 

WATER SERVICE

 _First_, take out necessary permits. 

 _Second_, list material and deliver to job. 

 _Third_, lay out and dig trench. 

 _Fourth_, have main tapped. 

 _Fifth_, lay pipe to curb and test. 

 _Sixth_, fill in street trench. 

 _Seventh_, lay pipe into building and test. 

 _Eighth_, set curb box. 

 _Ninth_, refill trench. 

 _Tenth_, thoroughly consider any special conditions. 

 _Street Sewer. _--Large pipe in streets to receive all soil and waste from buildings. 

 _House Sewer. _--Conveys sewage from building to street sewer, extends from foundation wall to sewer. 

 _Street Main. _--Water pipe running parallel with the street, belonging to the water company. 

 _Service Pipe. _--Runs from the street main into the building. 

 _Corporation Cock. _--Brass stop tapped into street main. 

 _Goose Neck. _--Lead pipe which connects the street main and service pipe. 

 _Trench. _--Hole dug to receive pipe. 

 _Main Tapped. _--Hole drilled through wall of main and a thread made on it while pressure is on. 

 _Curb Cock. _--Brass shut-off placed at curb. 

 _Solder Nipple. _--Piece of brass pipe with thread on one end and plain on the other end which connects lead and iron. 

 _Coupling. _--Fitting which connects two pieces of pipe. 

 _Stop Cock. _--Brass fitting for stopping flow of water. 

 _Curb Box. _--Iron box extending from curb cock to surface. 

 _Curb Key. _--A long key to fit in side of curb box to operate curb cock. 

 _Swab. _--Stick with ball of rags or paper on one end. 

CHAPTER VIII

INSTALLING OF FRENCH OR SUB-SOIL DRAINS

[Illustration: FIG. 45. --Sub-soil drain. ]

When a building is erected on a site that is wet or springy, somemeans of carrying off the surplus water in the ground must beprovided for, or the basement of the building will be flooded withwater. For the thorough understanding of the methods employed inlaying a drain of this kind, I will go over it carefully and thebeginner can read it and then study it, and understand just how itis done. A site may appear to be dry on the surface of the groundand yet be very wet under the surface. If no information can be hadregarding the site, it is always well to drain the site if it is ona slope or near a body of water and on the water shed of a river orlake. If a building is a large one and the foundation goes downvery deep, the site should always be drained. The drain is laidunder the basement floor and around the outside of the foundationwall on a level with or lower than the basement floor. The value ofdraining a building site when the building is first started is veryoften overlooked. The cost of the drain will be saved in a fewyears as the basement will be free from all excessive dampness. Theexpense of installing a sub-soil after the building is up and inuse is great as well as inconvenient. The drain is called "sub-soildrain" on account of its location under the ground and on accountof its duty of taking off all surplus water that is underground. With the surface water taken off by the surface drains and thesub-soil drained by the sub-soil drains, a wet building site can bemade practically dry (see Fig. 45). 

MATERIALS USED IN SUB-SOIL CONSTRUCTION. --The object of the drainis to collect water and carry it away from the building by means ofpipes. Terra-cotta pipes, with or without hubs, are used. Perforated tile pipe is sometimes used. This pipe is unglazedterra-cotta pipe with 1-inch holes in the sides about 3 or 4 inchesfrom the center. These holes allow the surplus water to enter thebore of the pipe and thus be carried off beyond the building site. 

When the sub-soil of a small building needs draining, the trenchesmade for the house drain and its branches are used as a drain inthe following manner: The trenches are dug deeper than is requiredfor the house drain. The trenches are then filled to the correctlevel with broken stones. There is space between these stones forthe water to find passage to a point away from the building. Whenthis method is employed, some provision must be made to prevent thehouse drain from settling. When locating the drain, we mustconsider approximately the amount of water that is likely to be inthe soil and required to be carried off. If there is considerablewater, the pipes should extend all around the outside of thebuilding foundation wall, also a main pipe running under the cellarbottom with six branches, three branches on each side. 

If there is not a great deal of surplus water in the soil, thedrain around the outside of the foundation wall should be put inand one drain line running through the basement will be sufficient. 

LAYING THE PIPE. --The drain pipe should be handled with care, forit is easily broken. The trench should be laid out and dug, thenthe pipe can be laid in it with a grade toward the outlet ordischarge. If pipes with a hub on one end are used, the hub shouldnot be cemented. A little oakum is packed in the hub to steady thepipe and keep sand out, the bottom of joint is cemented, a piece oftar paper can be laid over the top of the joint to keep the sandout. With joints made this way, the water can find its way to thebore of the pipe and yet the sand will be kept out of the pipe. Assoon as the water gets into the bore of the pipe it has a clearpassageway to some discharge point away from the building. If tilepipes without any hubs are used, some covering should be put aroundthe joint to keep out the sand and still allow the water to findits way into the pipes. 

DISCHARGE OF SUB-SOIL DRAIN. --The water that accumulates in asub-soil drain must be carried off to some point away from thebuilding. As the pipes are generally under the cellar bottom andunder the house drain, it is very evident that this drain cannotdischarge into the house drain sewer, directly. If the buildingsite is on a hill, the drain can be carried out and discharged onthe surface at a point that is somewhat lower than the level of thepipe under the building. Where this cannot be done, it will benecessary to have the different lines of pipes discharge into apit. The water is accumulated in this pit until it is filled, thenit will automatically empty itself as later explained. 

PIT CONSTRUCTION. --The pit for the sub-soil water is constructed ofcement. A pit 2 feet square or 2 feet in diameter and 3 feet deepwill answer all requirements. A pit of this depth will allow apitch for all lines of pipe, and is large enough for ordinaryinstallations. The pit is built up to the surface of the cementedfloor of the basement and covered with a removable iron cover. 

CELLAR DRAINER OR PUMP. --A cellar drainer is employed to empty theabove-mentioned pit. The cellar drainer works automatically. Whenthe pit is filled with water, the drainer operates and empties thepit and discharges the water into a sink or open sewer connection. When the pit is emptied, the drainer shuts off. The cellar draineris operated by water pressure. When the valve is opened, a smalljet of water is discharged into a larger pipe. The velocity of thissmall jet of water creates a suction and carries along with it someof the water in the pit. This suction continues until the tank isempty. There should always be a strainer on the suction pipe, alsoon the supply pipe, to prevent any particles of dirt getting intothe valve. The pipes leading to and from the drainer should emptyinto an open sink where it can be seen. There is a possibility ofthe drainer valve leaking and then the water pressure will leakthrough it, causing a waste of water. If this leakage can be seenwhere it discharges, then the trouble can be rectified. The cellardrainer is connected directly with the water pressure and shouldhave a valve close to the connection to control the supply. 

CHAPTER IX

STORM AND SANITARY DRAINAGE WITH SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN VIEW

The accompanying drawing of storm and sanitary drains should bestudied in detail by the reader. The location of each trap andfitting should be studied carefully and the reason that it is putin that particular place should be thoroughly understood. Below, each plan has been taken and gone over in detail, bringing out thereasons for fittings and traps, also the arrangement of the piping. 

[Illustration: FIG. 46. ]

The first thing to note in Fig. 46 is the number and kinds offixtures to be drained. There is in the basement a set ofthree-part wash trays. This will require a 2-inch waste and a1-1/2-inch vent. There is in the drawing a 2-inch waste extendingto the fixtures above. On the same line is a rain leader with atrap showing also a 4-inch floor drain. There are two 4-inch rainleaders on the opposite corners of the plan, in the rear of thebuilding. There is a 4-inch soil stack for fixtures above and a4-inch soil stack in the basement on the same line for a basementtoilet. On the front there are rain leaders in each corner. Thesewill be connected outside of the house trap (this feature should benoted). The outlets that are to discharge into the house drain areas follows:

 Two 4-inch rain leaders. 

 One 2-inch sink waste. 

 One 2-inch wash tray waste. 

 One 4-inch floor drain. 

 One 4-inch soil pipe. 

 One 4-inch closet connection. 

 Two 4-inch front rain leaders to discharge into house sewer. 

If we were to install this job, we would first locate each pipethat enters the house drain. The lowest outlet would beparticularly noted, in this case the 4-inch floor drain. From thisdrain we must make sure that at least 1/4 inch to the foot fall issecured. We must then locate the house sewer where it enters thefoundation wall, then the work can be started. I will not attemptto list the material that is necessary for this work, at this time. With all the material at hand the house drain is started. All ofthis work is installed under the ground, therefore trenches must bedug for all the piping. The plumber must lay these trenches out andin doing so he must have in mind all connections and the fittingshe can use so that the trenches can be dug at the right angle. Thetrenches must be dug allowing a pitch for the pipe. The height ofthe cellar is 8 feet below the joists. A stick is cut 8 feet longwhich can be used to get the trenches below the cement floor at theright depth. After the digging is completed, the house trap, whichis a 6-inch running trap, is caulked into a length of 6-inchcast-iron pipe. This piece of pipe is pushed out toward the sewerbringing the trap near the foundation wall, on the inside. Thefittings and traps and pipe are caulked in place as fast aspossible. When possible, the joints are caulked outside of thetrench in an upright position. There are a number of different waysto caulk this pipe together, and to make it clear to the beginnerjust how it is done the following exercise is suggested. This jobbrings in the caulking of pipes, traps, and fittings in variouspositions. Two or three can work on this job together. Fig. 47shows how the pipe and fittings are put together, which needs nofurther explanation. Therefore, we will go over in detail only thecaulking of the joints in the various positions. 

[Illustration: FIG. 47. ]

MATERIAL NEEDED. --One length of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, single hub; two lengths of 4-inch extra heavy cast-iron pipe, double hub; one running trap, one full Y, one 4-inch 1/4 bend; two4-inch clean-out screws with iron body; one 4-inch vent cap; one4-inch 1/8 bend; 30 pounds of block lead; 2 pounds of oakum. 

TOOLS REQUIRED. --Ladle, asbestos pourer, hammer, cold chisel, yarning iron, two caulking irons, furnace and pot. 

The beginner should start at the trap and caulk the joints with thetrap held in place. The cold chisel should be sharp as it is usedto cut the cast-iron pipe. 

To caulk the straight end of cast-iron pipe into the hub end andmake a water-tight joint when the pipe is in a vertical position, the spigot end of the pipe is entered into the hub end of anotherpiece. A wad of oakum is taken and forced into the hub with theyarning iron. This piece of oakum is forced to the bottom of thehub, then another piece is put in. The oakum is set and packed byusing the yarning iron and hammer. The hub is half filled withoakum. The oakum is forced tight enough to make a water-tightjoint. If the oakum used comes in a bale, pieces of it will have tobe taken and rolled into long ropes about 18 inches long, thethickness of the rope corresponding with the space between the huband the pipe. If rope oakum is used, the strands of the rope can beused. After the oakum is well packed into place and the pipe islined up and made straight, molten lead is poured in and the hubfilled. When the lead has cooled, set the lead with the caulkingtool and hammer, making one blow on each side of the joint. Thissets the lead evenly on every side. If there is any surplus lead, it can now be cut off, using the hammer and cold chisel. Thecaulking iron is again taken and the lead next to the pipe istamped, striking the iron with the hammer at an angle to drive thelead against the pipe. After this has been done all around, thecaulking iron is held in such a position that the lead around thehub will receive the force of the blow. After this has been done, the center of the lead is caulked and the joint should be tight. With a little practice, this can be done very rapidly. The leadshould be poured in while it is very hot. The caulking must not bedone by hitting heavy blows as there is a possibility of splittingthe hub and thereby rendering the joint unfit for use. 

CAULKING JOINT IN HORIZONTAL POSITION. --It is necessary in a greatmany cases to caulk a joint in a position where the lead would runout of the joint unless provision were made to hold it in. Tocaulk a joint in a position of this kind, the pipe is lined up andsecured, then the oakum is put in and forced to the bottom of thehub. Then a joint runner, which is an asbestos rope about 2 feetlong and about 1 inch in diameter, is fitted around the pipe andforced against the hub where it is clamped by means of an attachedclamp. The clamp is put on the top of the pipe and so arranged thata channel will be left in a V shape. This channel allows the hotlead to run between the asbestos runner and the hub. When the leadhas had a chance to cool, the asbestos runner is taken off. Wherethe clamp was, there will be a triangular piece of lead stickingout beyond the face of the hub. This piece has to be cut off, butno attempt should be made to do so until it has been caulked inplace and well set; also the rest of the lead should be set. Thenthe cold chisel can be used and this extra piece of lead taken off. The caulking of the lead in this position is the same as in theprevious position and should be carried out closely. The beginnershould understand that it is necessary to have not only the jointstight so that running water will not leak out of them, but that thejoints must stand a water test. The testing of soil stacks isexplained under another heading. The lines of cast-iron pipe dependto a considerable extent upon these joints to make the whole linerigid. 

CAULKING OF FITTINGS. --The caulking of fittings, while done thesame as a straight pipe, is far more difficult. The improper makingof these joints is the cause of many leaks. A long sweep fitting iscaulked without a great deal of difficulty. If a short bend fittingis used, the matter of caulking is difficult. The fitting is soshort that it is almost impossible to get a caulking iron into thethroat. The mechanics will have to work at the throat from eachside until this part has been sufficiently caulked. I callattention to this point, for I know it to be a failure in a largenumber of jobs when it comes to put the test on. In order to caulkthe fittings, they must be put in their exact location andpositions before the lead is poured in, for after the lead is oncein the fitting cannot be moved. When there is a series of fittingson a line, their positions in relation to each other must beconsidered before the lead is poured. 

[Illustration: FIG. 48. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 49. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 50. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 51. ]

Fig. 48 shows the same fixture and stack connections as Fig. 46. Two 4-inch lines run through the cellar, one a sanitary drain, theother a storm drain. Each 4-inch line has an intercepting trap. Onthe sewer side of these traps the two lines are brought together, beyond which point the two front rain leaders connect; each of thetwo front leaders is trapped separately. 

[Illustration: FIG. 52. ]

Fig. 49 differs from the preceding one in only two points. First, the two front leaders are brought into the cellar and connectedinto the storm drain on the house side of the intercepting trap. Second, the storm and sanitary drains are connected on the outsideof the building. 

Fig. 50 shows the same fixtures collected into a 4-inch housedrain, and the rain leaders run entirely on the outside of thebuilding. This plan is a good one as all the storm water is keptentirely outside the building. If the storm drains are kept 5 feetaway from the cellar walls (see Plumbing Code) the pipes can be oftile. Another good feature of this plan is that all the pipes underthe cellar are 4-inch. 

Fig. 51 is similar to Fig. 46, the difference being in the locationof the floor drain and the connection of the two rear rain leaders, into the house drain. 

In Fig. 52 the drains shown take the waste and storm water from theapartment building, also a building set in the rear. The leaderpipes in this case are trapped on the outside of the wall. Thebuilding in the rear you will note has a separate fresh air inletand house trap, and the house sewer is continued through the fronthouse and connected into the house drain of the front building, onthe sewer side of the intercepting trap. 

These drawings should be studied carefully and the student shouldin each case list correctly all of the material required for theinstallation of these jobs. 

[Illustration: FIG. 53. --Cutting cast-iron pipe. ]

CUTTING CAST-IRON PIPE. --To cut cast-iron pipe, a sharp cold chiseland hammer are needed. The pipe is marked all around, just where itis to be cut. Then it is laid with the part of the pipe that is tobe cut resting on a block of wood. A groove is cut with the hammerand chisel around the pipe. One person can turn the pipe while theother does the cutting. After a little experience one man can cutand roll the pipe alone. This groove is cut deeper and deeper untilthe pipe breaks apart. If standard pipe is being cut, a file isgenerally resorted to for cutting the groove. On account of thelightness of the pipe, a hammer and chisel will crack the pipelengthwise. When cutting extra heavy cast-iron pipe, a good heavyblow must be struck to cause the chisel to cut into the iron. Aftera few cuts, the beginner will understand the weight of blow thatmust be struck to cut the pipe quickly. 

CHAPTER X

SOIL AND WASTE PIPES AND VENTS. TESTS

SOIL PIPES

The term "soil pipes" means pipe that receives the discharge fromwater closets. The size of a soil pipe for ordinary dwellingsshould be 4 inches. 

SIZE OF SOIL PIPES

 One to three closets--4-inch XX cast-iron. Four to eight closets--5-inch XX cast-iron. Eight to twelve closets--6-inch XX cast-iron. 

There are cases when 3-inch XX cast-iron pipe is used, but thepractice is not recommended. 

The soil pipe should be well supported and held in place. Theconnection between soil pipe and closet should be of lead to allowfor any expansion of settling that might take place. 

MATERIAL OF SOIL PIPES. --Soil pipe in common use today is made oflight cast iron, tar-coated, extra heavy cast iron uncoated andcoated, galvanized wrought-iron pipe, and steel pipe. The best kindto use depends upon the job and place where it is to be used. All kinds of bends and fittings can be had in any of theabove-mentioned materials. In choosing the material of the pipethat is best to use, the following points should be carefullyconsidered. 

 _First_, new work or overhauling. 

 _Second_, temporary or permanent job. 

 _Third_, construction of building. 

 _Fourth_, amount allowed for cost of materials on job. 

 _Fifth_, size of job, that is, the number of toilets. 

 _Sixth_, size of chases and pipe partitions. 

LOCATION OF SOIL PIPE. --The location of the soil pipe depends to agreat extent upon the location of the toilets. The soil stackshould be located on an inside partition. The horizontal pipeshould not run over expensively decorated ceilings unless runinside of a trough made of copper or sheet lead. As far aspossible, the pipes should be confined, to runs short, and thenumber of bends reduced. 

SOIL-PIPE FITTINGS

Soil-pipe fittings can be had from stock almost to suit theconditions. I will enumerate a few. The names of these fittingsshould be familiar to the mechanic so that when ordering he cangive the correct name. 1/16, 1/8, 1/6, 1/4 bend, sanitary tee, tapped tee, side outlet fitting, return bend, cross branches, double Y, double TY, traps. The uses of these cast-iron fittingsperhaps are obvious, but a word about the use of each one will beof service. 

The 1/4 bend is used to change the direction of run of pipe 90°. Along-sweep 1/4 bend is used on work requiring the best practice. 1/8, 1/16, and 1/6 bends are used to change the direction of pipe45°, 22-1/2°, and 16-2/3°. Two 1/8 bends should be used inpreference to one 1/4 bend where there is sufficient room. Sideoutlet 1/4 bend is used for waste connection. They can be had withan outlet on either side of the heel. Their use is not recommended. 

Return bends are used on fresh-air inlets. Tees are used for ventsonly. Ys are used wherever possible. The use of a Y-branch togetherwith an 1/8 bend for a 90° connection with the main line is alwayspreferable to a TY or, as they are commonly called, sanitary T. Atapped fitting gets its name because it is tapped for iron pipethread. Tapped fittings are used for venting and should not beused for waste unless the tap enters the fitting at an angle of45°. 

These fittings and pipe are joined by first caulking with oakum andpouring, with one continuous pour, the hub full of molten metal. When cool, the lead should be set and then caulked around the pipeand around the hub. 

The amount of lead and oakum required for various-sized joints isas follows:

 Pipe size 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 Pounds of lead 1-1/2 2-1/4 3 3-3/4 4-1/2 6 7-1/2 9 11-1/4 Oakum (ounce) 4 6 8 10 12 16 20 24 30

RUST JOINTS. --The plumber is called upon to run cast-iron pipe inplaces where lead and oakum will not be of service for the joints. In cases of this kind, a rust joint is made. This "rust" is madeaccording to the following formula:

 1 part flour of sulphur. 1 part sal-ammoniac. 98 parts iron borings (free from grease). 

This mixture is made the consistency of cement, using water to mixthoroughly and bring all parts into contact with each other. Whenit hardens, it becomes very hard and makes a tight joint whichovercomes the objections to lead and oakum joints. 

WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE

This pipe comes in about 18-foot lengths and fittings of thefollowing makes and shapes, and their use is fully explained. Thelengths of pipe come with a thread on each end and a couplingscrewed on one end. The lengths come in bundles up to 1-1/2-inchesand in single lengths over that size. Screw pipe fittings, it willbe noted, are called by a different name than cast-iron ones. Thefittings in common use today are the 90 degree ell, 45, 22, and16-2/3. The Y and TY, tucker fittings, and inverted Ys are used inpractically the same way as the cast-iron fittings. The 90 degreeell, 45, 22, and 16-2/3 are used to change the run of pipe thatmany degrees. All 90 degree fittings, ells, and Ts are tapped togive the pipe a pitch of 1/4 inch to the foot. It is better to usetwo 45 ells to make a 90 bend when it is possible. 

[Illustration: CAST-IRON SCREW FITTINGSFIG. 54. ]

INVERTED Y. --The inverted Y is used in venting to good advantage. The use of these fittings is illustrated in the sketches. 

WASTE PIPES. --Waste pipes are the pipes that run to or convey thedischarge of waste matter to the house drain, from wash trays, baths, lavatories, sinks, and showers. 

The usual size of waste pipes is 2 inches. Waste pipes are made ofthe same material as soil pipe. Lead and brass pipe are also incommon use. All exposed waste pipes in bath and toilet rooms arebrass, nickel-plated. The waste pipes under kitchen sinks and washtrays are either lead or plain heavy brass. All waste pipes are runwith a pitch towards the house trap and should be properly ventedas explained under venting. The pipes should be easy of access, with clean-outs in convenient places. The waste pipes under a tileor cement floor should be covered with waterproof paper and a metalV-shaped shield over the entire length. If the waste pipes are overa decorated ceiling they should be in a copper-lined or lead-linedbox. This box should have a tell-tale pipe running to the opencellar with the end of the tell-tale pipe left open. If waste pipesare to take the discharge from sinks in which chemicals are thrown, either chemical lead or terra-cotta pipe should be used. Ifterra-cotta is used, it should have at least 6 inches reinforcedconcrete around it and the joints of pipe made of keisilgar. 

SIZE OF WASTE PIPES

 Urinals 2 inches Kitchen sink 2 inches Slop sink 3 inches Receptacles 1-1/2 inches Bath tubs 1-1/2 inches Lavatories 1-1/2 or 1-1/4 inches Wash trays 2 inches

TELL-TALE PIPE. --The tell-tale pipe is a small pipe that extendsfrom the trough, pan, or box that is under a line of pipe orfixtures to the open cellar. When water is seen running out of thispipe, it shows that a leak exists somewhere in the line of pipethat is in the box or trough. The use of this pipe saves thedestruction of walls and ceilings. 

VENTS

[Illustration: FIG. 55. --Circuit vent. ]

Vents are the most important pipes in the plumbing system. Modernplumbing successfully attempts to make living in crowded andthickly populated districts, as well as in isolated buildings, freefrom all unpleasant odors and annoyances. This could not beaccomplished without the use of vents. Vents relieve all pressurein the system by furnishing an outlet for the air that is displacedby the waste discharged from the fixtures. Another of its functionsis to supply air when syphonic action starts, thereby stopping theaction that would break the seal of the trap under fixtures. Thepipe extending from top fixture connection, up to and through theroof, is called the ventilation pipe. All vents that do not passdirectly through the roof terminate in this ventilation pipe. 

To explain the use of vents, we might well start in the basement ofa dwelling house. Suppose there is a set of wash trays in thelaundry; the 2-inch trap of these trays should have a 1-1/4-inchvent pipe leading from the crown of the trap up along side of thestack. On the first floor a 1-1/4-inch pipe from the crown of thekitchen sink trap will lead into it. Here the pipe should beincreased to 2 inches. On the second floor the 1-1/4-inch pipesleading from the lavatory and bath traps come into it. The ventstack now extends up into the attic and connects with theventilation pipe. In a general way, the above is an example ofventing. The old method of venting was very complicated and isalmost beyond describing with the pen. 

[Illustration: FIG. 56. --Loop vent. ]

In common use today, there are several kinds of venting, namely:circuit and loop venting, crown venting, and continuous venting. The _circuit venting_, Fig. 55, is used in connection with theinstallation of closets. Take a row of toilets in which the wasteconnection of each closet discharges into a Y-branch, and therewill be a series of Y-branches. One end of this series of branchesdischarges into the main stack while the other end continues andturns up at least to the height of the top of the closet and thenenters the main vent stack. When this main vent runs up along sideof the main stack and forces the vent pipe connected to the seriesof Y-branches to travel back, it is called a loop vent. This typeof vent supplies air to the complete line of toilets and is veryefficient. 

[Illustration: FIG. 57. --Continuous vent. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 58. ]

CONTINUOUS VENTING, Figs. 57 and 58, applies more to fixtures otherthan toilets. A P-trap is used and enters a T in the stack. Thelower part of the T acts as and connects with the waste pipe whilethe upper half is and connects with the vent pipe. A study of thefigures will aid the reader to understand thoroughly the aboveexplanations. In continuous venting the waste of the lowest fixtureis discharged into the vent pipe and extended to the main wastestack where it is connected. This is done to allow any rust scalesthat occasionally drop down the vent pipe, and render it unfit toperform its duty, to be washed away into the sewer. 

CROWN VENTING, Fig. 59, is as its name implies, a vent that istaken from the crown of the trap, thence into the main vent. 

Each one of these methods of venting is used and considered goodpractice, provided it is properly installed and correctly connectedwith the use of proper fittings. 

[Illustration: FIG. 59. --Crown venting. ]

THINGS TO REMEMBER. --

 _First_, venting is to prevent traps from syphoning. 

 _Second_, also to allow free passage of air. 

 _Third_, circuit vent--loop vent. 

 _Fourth_, continuous venting. 

 _Fifth_, crown venting. 

 _Sixth_, ventilation pipe extends from the top of fixture through roof. 

CHAPTER XI

HOUSE TRAPS, FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS, DRUM TRAPS, AND NON-SYPHONINGTRAPS

The _house trap_ is a deep seal trap placed inside the foundationwall, and intersects the house drain and house sewer. The trap isplaced at this point for a number of reasons: first, to keep sewergases from entering the pipes in the house; second, this locationis where the house drain ends. This trap should have twoclean-outs, one on each side of the seal. The clean-outs should beof extra heavy cast-iron body with a heavy brass screw cap. The capshould have a square nut for a wrench to tighten or unscrew thecap. This cap should be brought up flush with the floor. When ahouse trap is being set, it is necessary to set it perfectly level, otherwise the seal of the trap is weakened and sewer gases canenter. 

Sometimes the trap is located on the house sewer just outside ofthe foundation wall. In this case, a pit should be built largeenough for a workman to get down to it to clean it out whennecessary. 

_A mason's trap_ was formerly used to a considerable extent, but isvery poor practice to use today on modern work. This trap was builtsquare of brick with a center partition. The brick soon became fouland the trap would be better termed a small cesspool than a trap. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT HOUSE TRAPS. --

 _First_, should be a running trap. 

 _Second_, two clean-outs. 

 _Third_, deep seal, at least 2 inches. 

 _Fourth_, set level. 

 _Fifth_, set inside foundation wall. 

 _Sixth_, accessible at all times. 

 _Seventh_, same size as house drain. 

 _Eighth_, fresh air should connect with it. 

FRESH-AIR CONNECTIONS

The term "fresh-air inlet" is, as its name implies, an inlet forfresh air. It is placed directly on the house side of the maintrap. The connections made vary considerably. A few goodconnections in common use are explained below. 

When the trap is in place, one of the clean-outs can be used forthe fresh air. If this is done, a Y-branch should be placed in thehub of the clean-out. The Y-branch should be used for the fresh airand the run should be used for a clean-out. 

A Y-fitting can be inserted directly back of the trap and thebranch used for the fresh air. An inverted Y makes a good fittingto use directly back of the trap. These branches should be takenoff the top of the pipe. The branch taken off for the fresh-airinlet should not have any waste discharge into it and should not beused for a drain pipe of any description. 

The fresh-air inlet should run as directly as possible into theouter air, at least 15 feet from any window. The pipes terminate ina number of different ways, some with a return bend, above theground, some with a cowl cap, some with a strainer. When necessaryto run pipe through the sidewalk, a box of brick is made with aheavy brass strainer fitted level with the sidewalk into which thepipe runs. If the pipe is run into the box on the side a little upfrom the bottom, the possibility of becoming stopped up or filledup is not great. The fresh-air inlet sometimes terminates above theroof of the building. 

Special care should be given this fresh-air inlet as it suppliesfresh air to the entire system and thus keeps the pipes in a muchbetter sanitary condition. 

Sometimes when the house drain is full of sewage, air is pushed outof the fresh-air inlet and disagreeable odors are evident. This iswhy it should be located as far as possible from any window. Special care should be taken on the part of the plumber not tolocate the fresh-air inlet nearer than 15 feet to the fresh-airintake of the heating system. 

[Illustration: FIG. 60. --Fresh-air inlet. ]

When the pipe passes through the foundation wall, the same careshould be exercised as with other pipes. That is, if the pipe is 4inches, a sleeve 6 inches should be cut in the wall for the 4-inchpipe to pass through. 

POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT FRESH AIR. --

 _First_, never should be smaller than 4 inches. 

 _Second_, one size smaller than trap. 

 _Third_, location, directly back of trap. 

 _Fourth_, leads to outer air. 

 _Fifth_, keep away from windows and intake of heating system. 

 _Sixth_, always have end of pipe covered with strainer, cowl, or return bend. 

 _Seventh_, make as few bends as possible. 

 _Eighth_, supplies fresh air to system. 

DRUM TRAP

The use of the drum trap is very handy to the plumber as well asefficient and practicable when installed. The trap can be purchasedwithout any outlets or inlets, so the plumber can put them inaccording to the necessary measurements. The making of these trapswith lead is explained in the chapter on Wiping Joints. The openend has a brass clean-out screw on it. When this clean-out screwcomes below the floor, another brass screw cap and flange isscrewed on the floor above the trap so that the clean-out screw inthe trap is easily accessible. 

[Illustration: FIG. 61. --Drum trap. ]

These drum traps are called bath traps as they are used mostly onbath wastes. They should never be installed with the clean-outexposed to the sewer side of the trap. In the best practice, heavybrass drum traps are used. 

NON-SYPHONING TRAP

[Illustration: FIG. 62. --Flask trap. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 63. --Clean-sweep trap. ]

After years of experimenting to produce a trap that would notsyphon without venting, we find in use today a large variety ofnon-syphoning traps. Traps that will hold their seal against allpractical forms of syphonic action, or other threatening features, have been made and used and serve the purpose for which they areintended. Various means to prevent the breaking of the seal ofthese traps are employed. While some depend on a ball or other kindof valve, others rely on partitions and deflections of variouskinds. All of these perform the functions for which they aredesigned, yet the devices employed offer an excellent obstructionfor the free passage of waste; therefore, in time, these trapsbecome inoperative. It should be borne in mind that any traps witha mechanical seal or an inside partition are not consideredsanitary. The inside partition might wear out or be destroyed andthus break the seal without the knowledge of anyone and allow sewergas to enter the room. The mechanical device may also be displacedor destroyed, leaving the trap without a seal. If the trap werecleaned out often or examined occasionally, these traps could beused with a greater degree of safety. Some of the forms ofnon-syphon traps in common use are:

 The _Flask Trap_, Fig. 62. This trap gets its name from its shape. There is an inside wall upon which the seal depends. This trap is like the bag trap, only the two inside walls of the pipe are combined into one. This wall should be of heavy cast brass, free from sand holes. 

 _Clean Sweep Trap_, Fig. 63. Some clean sweep traps are dependent upon an inside wall for their seals. They are made of 1/2-S, 3/4-S, and full S. 

[Illustration: FIG. 64. --Mechanical-seal trap. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 65. --Standard "S" trap. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 66. --Bag trap. ]

 _Sure Seal Trap. _ The sure seal trap is designed to be non-syphoning. This trap also has an interior waterway. If this waterway leaks, the trap is unfit for use. If these traps are made as shown in the second sketch with the way inside of a larger pipe, it can be detected if the interior wall leaks. 

 _Centrifugal Trap. _ The centrifugal trap is made similar to the clean sweep, except that the wall of the inlet pipe is entirely separate from the body of the trap. The inlet enters the body of the trap on a tangent, thus making the trap self-scouring which is a good feature. 

CHAPTER XII

PIPE THREADING

The proper cutting of threads on pipe is overlooked by somemechanics. There are many different kinds of dies and differentkinds of pipe to contend with. Steel pipe threads very hard and theadjustable dies should be used on it. These dies cut more easilyand leave a cleaner thread than other dies when used on steel pipe. When threads are cut on wrought-iron pipe the adjustable diesshould be used as they cut a better and cleaner thread than otherdies. To preserve the life of the dies and the quality of thethread, oil is used freely while the dies are cutting. 

THREADS. --The standard thread on pipe and fittings is aright-handed thread. Left threads can be cut on the pipe and thefitting can be tapped with a left thread. When a fitting is tappedwith a left thread it is marked so. The following table gives thestandard number of threads that a die will or should be allowed tocut on the pipe:

 --------+----------------+-------------------+---------------- Size | Length, inches | Threads per inch | Threads per end --------+----------------+-------------------+---------------- 3/8 | 9/16 | 18 | 10. 825 1/2 | 3/4 | 14 | 10. 500 3/4 | 3/4 | 14 | 10. 500 1 | 15/16 | 11-1/2 | 10. 800 1-1/4 | 1 | 11-1/2 | 11. 500 1-1/2 | 1 | 11-1/2 | 11. 500 2 | 1-1/8 | 11-1/2 | 12. 930 --------+----------------+-------------------+----------------

To acquaint the beginner with iron pipe work, the followingexercise is given. In it there are a great many of the actualproblems that come up when the pipe is put in on a job. This is thelast exercise that is required in this book. The sketch showsclearly just what the job is and below I have gone over eachoperation that is necessary to complete the job. 

[Illustration: FIG. 67. ]

MATERIALS NECESSARY. --Six feet of 1-inch black pipe; four 1-inchblack ells; two 1-inch tee; one 1-inch right and left coupling;oil. 

TOOLS NECESSARY. --Two 14-inch pipe wrenches, vise, pipe cutters, stock and 1-inch follower right and left die and reamer. 

The vise is made secure on a bench or post, care being taken beforeit is put in place to provide room enough to swing the stocks. Alength of 1-inch pipe is put into the vise and the vise clampedaround it. The end of the pipe that is to be threaded should stickout through the vise about 9 inches. If there is a thread on thisend, the dies should be run over it to make sure that it is astandard thread and to clean the threads. Before proceeding furtherwith this exercise the dies and stocks will be described and theiruse shown. 

DIES. --A full set of dies is taken. The full set of stocks and diesis composed of right and left dies from 1/8 inch up to 1 inch, witha guide for each size, also a small wrench with which to turn theset screws. The dies come in sets, two in a set. These are theArmstrong patent that I am describing. Take the stock and thehandles, and a set of 1-inch right dies with the guides out of thebox. The dies will have marked on them 1" R (if 1-inch left werewanted, the mark would be 1" L). The set screws are taken out ofthe stock and the dies inserted in their proper place. There is adeep mark on the edge of each die and under it a letter S. Thisletter means "standard. " This mark on the die is set even with asimilar mark on the stock and when the set screws are in place andtightened, a standard thread will be cut. There is an adjustingscrew on the stock to make the proper adjustment on the dies. 

STOCK. --The stock is taken and the handles are put into it. Thereare two sets of set screws on the stock, one set for holding thedies in place and the other set for adjusting the dies. On thestock there is a deep mark to correspond with the standard threadmark on the dies. On the opposite side of the stock there is aplace for the follower and a set screw to hold it in place. Afterthe stocks have been looked over and examined thoroughly, the1-inch right dies are taken and inserted. Then the 1-inch followeris put in place. The tool is now ready to cut a 1-inch thread. Nowtake a piece of 1-inch pipe at least 15 inches long and put it inthe vise, letting it extend out from the vise about 9 inches. Thestock is now taken and the follower end is put on the pipe firstand the dies brought up in place to cut. The end of the pipe isallowed to enter in between the two dies so that the teeth of eachdie rest on the pipe. Now, holding the handles of the stock about 6inches from the body of the stock and standing directly in front ofthe pipe, push and turn to the right at the same time and the dieswill be started. Now put some oil on the dies and turn the stock, taking hold of the ends of the handles and standing at one side. The dies are run up on the pipe until the pipe extends through theface of the dies one thread. Oil is put on the pipe and the dies atleast twice during the cutting. When the thread is long enough thestock is turned back a little and then forward a little and theloose chips are blown out from between the dies and pipe. If thedies are set right, a good clean standard thread will have beencut. This thread can now be cut off with the pipe cutters. 

PIPE CUTTERS. --To cut pipe with a one-wheel pipe cutter is a simplematter. I will not dwell at length on the cutter itself. There areone-wheel and three-wheel cutters. We will use a one-wheel cuttertool. This cutter is forced into the surface of the pipe with a setscrew having a long tee handle. The pressure that is brought tobear on the pipe while being cut is sufficient to cause a largeburr to form on the inside of the pipe. Sometimes the pipe iscompletely crushed and rendered unfit for use. Therefore the userof these cutters should exercise care when cutting pipe. The pipeis put in the vise and the cutters are so put on the pipe that thepipe will be between the two rollers and the cutter wheel, thecutter resting on the mark that indicates the point at which thepipe is to be cut. The handle is screwed down and the cuttersturned around the pipe; each time the cutters make a complete turnthe handle is screwed down more. This procedure is continued untilthe furrow has been cut clear through the pipe. 

CUTTING AND THREADING NIPPLES. --Nipples are short pieces of pipethreaded on each end. Pieces of pipe longer than 6 inches are notcalled nipples. When a nipple is so short that the threads cut oneach end meet in the center of the piece, the nipple is called a"close nipple. " When there is a space of about 1/4 inch between thethreads, it is called a "space or shoulder" nipple. To cut andthread these nipples a nipple chuck or nipple holder is necessary. 

[Illustration: FIG. 68. --Nipple chuck and nipples. ]

NIPPLE HOLDERS. --Take a piece of 1-inch pipe about 12 inches longand on one end cut a thread that is 2 inches long. Take a 1-inchcoupling and screw it on this end until the end of the pipe isalmost through the end of the coupling. At least four threadsshould be allowed at this end of the coupling. Now we have a pieceof pipe 12 inches long having a thread 2 inches long on one endwith a coupling on the thread. This is called a nipple holder. Now, to cut a nipple, cut a thread on a piece of pipe and cut the pipeoff at any desired length, say 2 inches. Put the nipple holder inthe vise with the coupling out from the vise about 8 inches. Takethe 2-inch piece of pipe with a thread on one end, screw thisthread into the coupling until it touches the pipe that has beenscrewed through from the other end. Now the stocks having the 1dies and the follower in are put on the pipe. The follower will notgo over the coupling, therefore take the follower out of thestock. Now the stock will slip over the coupling and the thread canbe cut. With this procedure a nipple of any length can be cut. There are a number of patented nipple chucks on the market, but asthey are not always at hand the above method is resorted to andserves every purpose. 

LONG SCREWS. --To cut a long screw which comes in use frequently onvent pipe work, a piece of pipe 12 inches long is taken and aregular length thread is cut on one end, and a thread 4 inches longis cut on the other end. Then a coupling is cut while screwed on apipe, so that a lock nut about 1/2 inch wide is made. Thedescription and use of these long screws will come under screw pipeventing. 

Now that the proper use of the tools has been explained, we willproceed with the exercise according to the sketch. With a length ofpipe in the vise and the 1-inch dies in the stock, run over thethread on the pipe. Note that all the measurements are center tocenter. Screw an elbow on the pipe and measure off the firstlength, which we will take as 12 inches center to center. Place therule on the pipe with one end of it at the center of the opening ofthe elbow just screwed on. Mark 12 inches off on the pipe. Thismark represents the center of another ell. Now take another ell andhold the center of one outlet on this mark. It will readily be seenthat to have the measurement come right, the pipe must be cut offat a point where it will make up tight when screwed into the ell. Therefore, about 1 inch will have to be cut off, making the pipe 1inch shorter than where it was first marked. Cut the pipe, andbefore taking it out of the vise make a thread on the pipe still inthe vise. After the thread is cut, take the reamer and ream out theburr that is on the inside of the pipe caused by the pipe cutter. An elbow can be screwed on this pipe. The next measurement ismarked off as explained, the pipe cut, then the piece in the visethreaded and reamed. The measurements must be accurate and thedies should be adjusted to cut all threads the same depth. When themeasurements are all out, there should be seven pieces of pipe, each piece having one thread. Now the threads on the other end canbe cut except the 12 inch piece that screws into the right and leftcoupling. This thread is a left-handed thread and must be cut withthe left dies. Change the dies now to the 1-inch left dies; turnthe stock in the opposite direction of the right-hand thread, andthe dies will cut the left thread. The pipe and the fittings caneasily be put together as shown in the sketch by following thecenter to center measurements. The right and left coupling is theonly fitting that will cause the beginner trouble. A right and leftcoupling can be used only when there is sufficient _give_ to thepipe, that is, the two ends of the pipe to be coupled together areonly 1/2 inch apart. To get the coupling in place to start thethreads, the pipe must spread apart at least 2 inches. If the pipecannot be spread that much, a right and left coupling cannot beused. The proper way to make up a right and left coupling is asfollows:

[Illustration: FIG. 69. --_F_ reads center of ell to end, _C_ readscenter of ell to center of valve, _D_ reads center of valve tocenter of T, _E_ reads center of T to center of ell. ]

Screw home the coupling on the right thread. Mark with a piece ofchalk on the coupling and the pipe showing a point on each wherethe coupling makes tight. Take off the coupling and count the turnsand make note of the number. Now do the same on the left threadand make a note of the number of threads. If the left thread hassix turns and the right has four and one-half, then to insure thatthe left thread will be tight when the right thread is, thecoupling must be put on the left thread one and one-half turnsbefore it is started on the right thread. Now with four andone-half turns, the right and the left threads will both be tight. A little thought and practice will make this connection clear. Ifall the measurements in this exercise are not cut accurately, theright and left coupling will not go together. 

CHAPTER XIII

COLD-WATER SUPPLY. TEST

The supplying of cold water to buildings and then piping it to thevarious fixtures makes a very interesting study. We have gone overthe methods of laying and piping for the house service pipe. Wewill go over the different systems now employed to supply thewater, quickly. 

UNDERGROUND WATER. --In thinly populated districts the well is stillemployed to supply water to the building. The water is brought tothe surface by means of a large bucket or by means of a pump. Awell point can be driven into the ground until water is reached andthen the water can be brought to the surface by means of a pumpoperated by hand or by power. The water can be forced to a tankthat is open and elevated, or forced into a tank that is closed andput under pressure. From either tank the water will flow to anydesired outlets. A windmill can be employed to furnish power tooperate the pump. Water supply that is received directly fromunderground is by far the best to use. A cesspool or outhouse mustnot be allowed on the premises with a well, otherwise the well willbe contaminated and unfit for domestic use. An open well is not assanitary as a driven well, as the surface water and leaves, etc. , get into it and decay and pollute the water, and soon make it unfitfor domestic use. 

STREAMS AND BROOKS. --The brooks and streams furnish a good sourceof supply for water to a building or community of buildings. Thewriter recently worked on a system of piping that supplied 15 or 20buildings. The water supply came from a brook that was higher thanthe houses. Each house had a separate pipe leading down from thebrook into a tank from which the house was piped. The owner of thebrook applied business ethics to the privileges of taking waterfrom it. He had a scale of prices, and the highest-priced locationwas an inch or so below the bed of the brook, the next price waslevel with the bottom, the next cheaper 2 inches above the bottom. As the surface was reached, the privilege cost less. In the drytime of the year those at the bottom of the brook always had waterwhile those at the top location had to wait for the water to rise, and had to do without water during the dry time. Where the streamis on a lower level than the building a hydraulic ram can be used. 

RIVERS AND LAKES. --Rivers and lakes make an abundant supply forwater systems. A sluggish-moving river is bad, also a river that isused for carrying off the sewage of a town. Special provision isnow made for the using of water that is polluted. A lake that issupplied by springs is by far the best source of supply. The wateris pumped from the river or lake into a reservoir and then flows bygravity into mains and from the mains into the buildings. The watershould always be filtered before it is allowed to enter thedistributing mains. 

WATER PRESSURE. --Pressure at a fixture or outlet so that the waterwill flow is generally obtained by the force of gravity. When thismethod is not sufficient, a pneumatic system is employed. Thismethod is employed to force the water to the top floors or tosupply the whole building in high structures. The pneumatic systemrequires a pump, an air-tight tank, and pipes to the variousoutlets. The water pumped into the air-tight tank will occupy partof the space generally occupied by the air. The air cannot escapeand is, therefore, compressed. Continued pumping will compress theair until the limit of the apparatus is reached. If a valve orfaucet that is connected with the tank is opened, the air willexpand and force the water out of the opening. This explains in ageneral way the operation of a pneumatic water-supply system. Watercan be pumped into this air-tight tank from a well, cistern, river, lake, or from the city supply mains. 

[Illustration: FIG. 70. --"Banjo. "]

PIPING. --From the service pipe on which there has been placed ashut-off, a line of piping, full size, is run through the basement, overhead to a convenient place, perhaps to a partition in thecenter of the cellar. The pipe is brought down and connected intothe end of a header. This header or banjo is made of Ts placed 4inches center to center. From each T a line of pipe is run to eachisolated fixture or set of fixtures (see Fig. 70). A stop and wastecock is placed on each line at such a point that all stop cockswill come in a row near the header. A small pipe is run from thewaste of each stop and discharged into a larger pipe which connectswith a sink. This way of running pipes while it is expensive makesa very neat and good job. Each stop cock has a tag on it statingexplicitly what it controls. If the building is a large one anumber of these panelled headers are used. A less expensive way torun this pipe is to branch off from the main at points where thebranch pipe will be as short as possible and use as few fittingsas possible. Stop and waste cocks are then placed on each branchnear the main. 

All pipe must follow the direct line of fitting with which it isconnected. The line of pipe should be perfectly straight. If itseems necessary to bend the pipe to get around an obstacle, thengood judgment has not been used in placing the fitting into whichthe pipe is screwed. The fitting should be re-located so that thepipe can be run without bending. To have true alignment of pipesthe whole job or section of the job must be drawn out on paperfirst and any obstacles noted and avoided before the piping is cut. This not only saves time but it is also the forerunner of a goodjob. When getting measurements for piping the same rule or tapeshould be used to get out the pipe as was used to get themeasurements. 

The water main and branches that run through the basement of abuilding are generally hung on the ceiling. Rough hangers of wood, rope, or wire are usually used to hold the pipe in place at first, then neat and strong adjustable hangers are placed every 8 feetapart. There are in use too many kinds of hangers to explain ordescribe them here. The essential point of all good hangers is tohave them strong, neat, and so made that perfect alignment of thepipe can be had. The hangers should be so placed that no strainwill come on the fitting or the valves. A hanger should be placednear each side of unions so that when the union is taken apartneither side of the pipe will drop and bend. Hooks and strapsshould be used to hold vertical pipes rigid and in position. Avertical pipe should be so held in place that its weight will comeon the hooks and straps that hold it rather than on the horizontalpipe into which it connects. Where there are six or eighthorizontal lines of pipes close together, a separate hanger foreach pipe makes a rather cumbersome job and it consumesconsiderable time to install them properly. A hanger having onesupport run under all the pipes will allow space for properalignment and adjustment for drainage. Allowance must be made onall lines of pipe for drainage. When a building is vacant duringcold weather, the water is drawn off; therefore, the pipes shouldhave a pitch to certain points where the pipes can be opened andthe entire system drained of water. 

KINDS OF PIPE. --The kind of pipe that is used for cold-water supplydepends on and varies according to the kind of water, the kind ofearth through which it runs, and the construction of the building. Wrought iron, steel, lead, brass, tin-lined brass, are in use. 

The supply pipe to every fixture should have a stop on it directlyunder the fixture. This will allow the water to be shut off forrepairs to the faucet without stopping the supply of otherfixtures. 

The making of perfect threads on pipe is an important matter, especially on water pipes. If the pipe and the dies were perfect, and the mechanic used sufficient oil in cutting, and the fittingswere perfectly tapped to correspond to the dies used on the pipe, of course a perfect union between pipe and fitting would result andthe joint would be found to be perfect on screwing the pipe home. As all the above conditions are not found on the job, threads aremade tight by the use of red or white lead and oil. The lead is puton the thread and when the thread is made up the lead will havebeen forced into any imperfection that may be in the threads andthe joint will then be water-tight. White lead and oil should beused on nickel-plated pipe as other pipe compounds are tooconspicuous and look badly. A pipe compound should be used withdiscretion, for if too much is put on a burr of it will collect inthe bore of the pipe and reduce it considerably. This is nottolerated, so only a small amount is used. Water pipes should berun in accessible places, making it possible to get at them in caseof trouble. In climates that have freezing weather water pipesshould not be run in outside partitions. If it is found absolutelynecessary to do so, as in the case of buildings which have noinside partitions on the first floor, the pipe should be properlycovered and protected. The different methods of covering pipes aredescribed in Chapter XV. 

CHAPTER XIV

HOT-WATER HEATERS. INSTANTANEOUS COIL AND STORAGE TANKS. RETURNCIRCULATION, HOT-WATER LINES AND EXPANSION

The problem of supplying hot water to plumbing fixtures is one thathas required years of study. Each job today demands considerablethought to make it a perfect and satisfactory hot-water system. Wewill find installations today where the water is red from rust, where there is water pounding and cracking. There are also jobswhere the fixtures get practically no hot water. As each job orindividual building has its own peculiar conditions, they must besolved by the designer or the mechanic, using the fundamentalprinciples of hot-water circulation. We must first know how muchhot water is to be used, also the location of the outlets and theconstruction of the building; then the size of the pipes and thesize of the tanks and their locations can be settled. If the job isa large one, a pump may be employed to insure the propercirculation. After this the pipe sizes and connections can beworked out. The one great enemy of hot-water circulation is air. Therefore, no traps or air pockets should ever appear in the pipingsystem. The boiler, as it is often referred to, is the hot-waterstorage tank. A copper or iron tank holding sufficient water tosupply all fixtures, even when every fixture demands a supply atthe same time, is installed in a convenient place and the heatingarrangement connected with it. A thermostat can be placed on thesystem and the temperature of the water controlled. According tothe size of the building the problem of furnishing the plumbingfixtures with hot water increases. 

METHODS OF HEATING HOT WATER. --There are a number of ways offurnishing hot water. Some of the installations are listed below. 

A cast-iron or brass water back is placed on the fire pot of astove or furnace. A separate stove with the fire pot and waterjacket is used. A coil of steam pipe is placed inside a hot-waterboiler or tank. Gas coil heaters are connected with hot waterstorage tank, also gas coil instantaneous heaters are connectedwith the piping direct. 

Combinations of the above systems are in use and serve the purposefor which they are intended. For instance, the tank can beconnected with a coal range and a gas coil heater, heat beingfurnished by the range alone or the coil heater alone, or both canbe used at the same time. This combination can be connected withthe furnace in the cellar, and during the winter months, when thefurnace is in use, the water can be heated by the furnace coil. Inwarm weather, when the furnace is out, the range can supply thenecessary heat. In hot weather the coil gas heater can supply theheat. 

CONNECTIONS OF TANK AND HEATING APPARATUS. --The ordinary houseboiler or hot-water storage tank has four connections, two on top, one on the side, and one on the bottom. The top connections areused for the entrance of cold water into the tank and for thesupply of hot water to the fixtures (see Fig. 71). The cold-waterinlet has a tube extending into the tank below the side connection. This tube has a small hole filed in it about 6 inches from the top. This hole is to break any syphonic action that may occur at anytime. The side connection is for the connection of the pipe comingfrom the top of the water back. The bottom opening in the tank isfor the connection of the pipe coming from the lower water backconnection, also for draining the boiler. The circulation of thewater can be followed thus: cold water enters the boiler in thetube and discharges into the boiler below the side connection. Fromhere it flows out of the bottom connection into the water back, through the upper connection into the boiler, through the sideopening, then to the top of the boiler and out to the fixturesthrough the fixture supply opening. 

[Illustration: FIG. 71. --Storage tank, and coil heater withthermostatic control valve. ]

Fig. 69 shows a thermostatic control valve attached to the bottomof a heater coil, and at the side of storage tank. The bestarrangement is at the bottom, for it does not shut off the gassupply until the boiler is full of hot water. 

CONNECTING TANK AND COIL GAS HEATER. --The boiler and the coil gasheater have a different connection. The bottom of the tank and thebottom of the heater are connected. The top of the heater and thetop of the boiler are connected. The accompanying sketch shows howthis connection is made. If the tee on the top of the boiler intowhich the gas-heater connection is made is not the first fittingand placed as close to the outlet as possible, the water will notcirculate freely into the boiler. This connection according to thedrawing should be studied and memorized. 

[Illustration: FIG. 72. --Instantaneous gas heater. Showingcirculation heater or booster. ]

INSTANTANEOUS GAS-HEATER CONNECTIONS. --An instantaneous gas heateris placed in the basement. The copper coil in it is connected atthe bottom with the cold-water supply and the top outlet of thecoil is connected with the hot-water system of piping. There is noneed of a storage tank with this heater. When a faucet is opened inany part of the hot-water piping system, the water passing throughthe water valve at the heater causes the gas valve to open so thatthe whole set of burners in the heater is supplied with gas, andthe burners are lighted from a pilot light. When the faucet isclosed, the gas supply is shut off and the burners are put out. Thepilot is lighted all the time. Space will not permit going overthese connections in detail. It is a large field and requiresconsiderable thought. 

SAFETY AND CHECK VALVES. --When a meter is used on a water system, the water company demands that a check valve be placed on thehot-water system to prevent the hot water from being forced backinto the meter in case the pressure got strong enough in theboiler. If a check valve is used for this purpose, or for any otherpurpose, a safety valve must be placed on the boiler piping systemto relieve any excessive pressure that may be caused by having thecheck valve in use. There is today, with meters of modern type, noreason to use a check valve or a safety valve. If an excessivepressure is obtained in the boiler, it is relieved in the watermain. 

When water is heated, it expands. If the heat becomes more intenseand steam is formed, the expansion is much greater, and some meansmust be provided to allow for it. This expansion can be allowed torelieve itself in the water main as explained above. When a checkvalve is placed on the piping, this means of escape is shut off anda safety valve must be employed. Without these reliefs, thepressure would be so great that an explosion would result. Whensteel pipe and steel boilers are used for storage tanks andconnections, the pipe and tank will shortly start to rust and partsof the piping are stopped up with rust scales. The water alsobecomes red with rust when the water becomes hot enough tocirculate. When the pipes are stopped up, steam is formed and asnapping and cracking sound is heard. To avoid these conditions, the piping should be of brass or lead and the storage tank shouldbe of copper. The installation cost of brass and copper is greaterthan steel, but they will not have to be replaced in two or threeyears, as is the case with other material. A valve should be placedon the cold-water supply to control the entire hot-water pipingsystem. A pipe with a stop cock should be placed underneath theboiler and should extend into a sink in the basement so that theboiler can be drained at any time for cleaning or repairs. 

CONNECTING WITH FIXTURES. --To have all fixtures properly suppliedwith hot water it is necessary to run what is termed a circulatingpipe. This circulating pipe is a circuit of pipe extending from thetop of the boiler to the vicinity of the fixtures and thenreturning to the boiler and connecting into the pipe leading out ofthe bottom of the boiler. From this circuit all branches are takento supply all fixtures requiring hot water. This circulating pipehas hot water circulating through it all the time. Therefore thefixtures are supplied with hot water very quickly. The circulatingpipe and its branches are run without any traps or air pockets. 

[Illustration: FIG. 73. --Expansion loop. Four 90° ells. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 74. --Expansion loop. Five 90° ells. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 75. --Expansion loop. Six 90° ells. ]

When running the piping, it should be borne in mind that not onlydoes the water expand when heated, but the pipe expands also. Therefore due allowance must be made for this expansion. The longrisers should have an expansion loop as shown in Figs. 73, 74 and75. There are installed on some jobs what is known as an expansionjoint. This will allow for the expansion and contraction of thepipe. The writer's experience with these joints has not been verysatisfactory. After a while these joints begin to leak and theymust have attention which in some cases is rather expensive. Anexpansion loop as shown in the sketch, made with elbows, will provesatisfactory. If the threads on the fittings and pipe are good, noleak will appear on this joint. 

All gas heaters must be connected with a flue to carry off theproducts of combustion. 

CHAPTER XV

INSULATION OF PIPING TO ELIMINATE CONDUCTION, RADIATION, FREEZING, AND NOISE

PIPE COVERING. --Pipe covering is another important branch ofplumbing. A few years ago heating pipes were the only pipes that itwas thought necessary to cover. The ever-increasing demands made bythe public keep the wideawake plumber continually solving problems. The water running down a waste pipe, for instance, will annoy somepeople, and provision must be made to avoid this noise or tosilence it. This is one of the many problems that the plumber mustsolve by the use of pipe covering. 

PIPES THAT NEED COVERING. --First of all, the covering must be puton properly to be of high service. _Hot-water circulating pipes_need covering to reduce the amount of heat loss. If the pipes andthe tank are not covered, considerable more fuel will be needed tosupply the necessary amount of hot water than if the pipes and tankwere covered with a good covering. _Cold-water pipes_ need coveringin places to keep them from freezing. They also need covering undersome conditions to keep them from sweating. They are covered alsoto prevent the material which surrounds them from coming intodirect contact with the pipe. _Waste pipes_ need covering toprevent them from freezing and to silence the noise caused by therush of water through them. _Ice-water pipes_ are covered toprevent the water from rising in temperature and to prevent anycondensation forming on the pipe. There is need for such a varietyof covering that I have listed below some of them and the methodsemployed for putting them on the pipe. 

Magnesia, asbestos air cell, molded asbestos, wool felt, waterproofpaper and wool felt, cork, hair felt. These coverings come in theform of pipe covering with a cloth jacket. They also come in theshape of fittings as well as in blocks and rolls of paper, and inpowdered form. Any thickness that is desired may be had. The pipecovering is readily put on the pipe. The cloth jacket is pulledback a short distance and the covering will open like a book. Itcan then be clamped on the pipe and the jacket pulled back andpasted into place. Brass bands, 1 inch wide, come with the pipecovering. These are put on and the pipe covering is then heldsecurely in place. Practically all the coverings are applied inthis manner and are made up in 3-foot lengths to fit any size pipe. To cover the fittings and valves, the same kind of sectionalcovering can be obtained and applied in the same manner as the pipecovering. Plastic covering is often applied to the fittings andmolded into the shape of the fitting. The plastic covering comes inbags and is dry. It is mixed with warm water to the consistency ofthick cement and applied with a trowel. When the covering is put onthe pipes and fittings, it should be done thoroughly to getsatisfactory results. Each section of the covering has on one endan extra length of the jacket. This is to allow a lap over on thenext section to make a tight joint. If the sections need fitting, asaw can be used and the covering cut to any desired length. 

 _Magnesia_ covering is employed mostly on steam pipes, especially high-pressure. This material can be had in the shape of pipe covering, in blocks, or cement. 

 _Asbestos air cell_ covering is employed to cover hot-water circulating pipes. It is constructed of corrugated asbestos paper. This material is manufactured in the sectional pipe covering or in corrugated paper form. 

 _Molded asbestos_ covering is also used on hot-water pipes, and is manufactured in pipe covering or in blocks. 

 _Wool felt_ covering is used mostly on hot-water pipes and makes one of the best coverings. It is lined with asbestos paper and covered with a cloth jacket. 

 _Waterproof paper and wool felt_ is used on cold-water pipes and is made in 3-foot lengths. The covering is lined with waterproof paper and covered with a cloth jacket. 

 _Cork. _--A heavy cork covering is one of the best coverings for ice-water pipes, and a light cork covering is used for cold-water pipes. This covering comes in sections as other coverings, also in blocks and sheets. 

 _Hair felt_ is used to prevent pipes from freezing. It comes in bales containing 150 to 300 square feet of various thicknesses. 

CHAPTER XVI

"DURHAM" OR "SCREW PIPE" WORK. PIPE AND FITTINGS

"Durham" or "screw pipe" work is the name used to denote that thejob is installed by the use of wrought-iron or steel screw pipe. Wespeak of a "cast-iron job" meaning that cast-iron pipe was used forthe piping. A completely different method of work is used whenscrew pipe is employed for the wastes and vents. When screw pipe isto be used or considered for use, it is well to know somethingconcerning the various makes of screw pipe. Nothing but galvanizedpipe is ever used. The value of steel screw pipe and wrought-ironscrew pipe should be studied, and every person interested should, if possible, understand how these different pipes are made and howthe material of which they are composed is made. In some places onepipe is better than another and a study of their make-up wouldenlighten the user and allow him to use the best for his peculiarconditions. The maker's name should always be on the pipe. Thefollowing table shows the sizes, weights, and thicknesses of screwpipe:

 -------+-----------+------------- Size | Thickness | No. Threads | | per inch -------+-----------+------------- 1-1/4 | 0. 140 | 11-1/2 1-1/2 | 0. 145 | 11-1/2 2 | 0. 154 | 11-1/2 2-1/2 | 0. 204 | 8 3 | 0. 217 | 8 3-1/2 | 0. 226 | 8 4 | 0. 237 | 8 5 | 0. 259 | 8 6 | 0. 280 | 8 -------+-----------+-------------

Screw pipe work came into common use with the advance of modernsteel structures. Some difficulty had been experienced in gettingthe cast-iron pipe joints tight and to keep the pipe so anchoredthat it would not crack. The screw pipe was found to answer all ofthe requirements of modern structures and therefore has been usedextensively. The life of screw pipe is not as long as extra heavycast-iron pipe. This is the only serious objection to screw pipe, which must be renewed after a term of years, while extra heavy castiron lasts indefinitely. Screw pipe is never used underground. Whenpiping is required underground, extra heavy cast-iron pipe is used. 

PIPING

The pipe used in Durham work is galvanized extra heavy, or standardwrought-iron, or steel pipe. It is almost impossible to recognizewrought-iron from steel pipe without the aid of a chemical or amagnifying glass. To test the pipe to distinguish its base, take asharp file and file through the surface of the pipe that is to betested. If the pipe is steel, under a magnifying glass the textureof the filed surface will appear to be smooth and have smallirregular-shaped grains, and there will also be an appearance ofcompactness. If the pipe is iron, the texture will have theappearance of being ragged and will show streaks of slag or black. When screw pipe is cut there is always left a large burr on theinside of the pipe. This burr greatly reduces the bore of the pipeand is a source of stoppage in waste pipes. After the pipe is cutthis burr should be reamed out thoroughly. One of the strong pointsof screw pipe is the strength of each joint. Care should thereforebe taken to see that perfect threads are cut on the pipe and thatthe threads of the fittings are perfect. The dies should be setright and not varied on each joint. There should be plenty of oilused when threads are cut so that the thread will be clean andsharp. The follower or guide on stocks should be the same size asthe pipe that is being threaded, otherwise a crooked thread willresult. If a pipe-threading machine is used, the pipe is setsquarely between the jaws of the vise that holds the pipe in place. When cutting a thread on a long length of pipe, the end stickingout from the machine must be supported firmly so that no strainwill come on the machine as the pipe turns. It is necessary to cutcrooked threads sometimes on the pipe to allow the pipe pitch fordrainage or to bring the pipe into alignment where fitting wouldtake up too much room. To cut a crooked thread on a piece of pipe, simply leave the follower out of the stock or put in the sizelarger. The dies not having a guide will cut a crooked thread. Piping should be run with as few threads as possible. With athorough knowledge of and the intelligent use of fittings, aminimum number of threads will result. 

The pipes in a building are run in compact parallel lines in chasesdesigned especially for them. The tendency is to confine the pipesto certain localities as much as possible. This makes a very neatjob and in case repairs are needed, the work and trouble incurredwill be confined to one section. 

FITTINGS

The fittings used in screw pipe work are cast-iron recess type (seeFig. 54). The fittings are so made that the inside bores of thepipe and the fittings come in direct line with each other, thusmaking a smooth inside surface at all bends. The fittings are allheavily galvanized. All fittings should be examined on the insidefor any lumps of metal of sufficient size to catch solid wastematter, and these must be removed or the fitting discarded. All 90°bends, whether Ts or elbows, are tapped to give the pipe thatconnects with them a pitch of at least 1/4 inch to the foot. Except where obligatory, 90° fittings should not be used. To make abend of 90° a Y-branch, a nipple and a 45° bend should be used, ortwo 45° bends will make a long easy sweep of the drainage pipes andreduce the possibility of stoppage. 

Y-branches are inserted every 30 feet at least to allow for aclean-out which can be placed in the branch of the fitting. When aclean-out is placed an iron plug should not be used. These plugsare not removed very often and an iron plug will rust in and bealmost impossible to get out. Brass clean-out plugs are used andare easily taken out. 

At times it is necessary to connect cast iron and wrought iron, orin a line where a union could be used if the pipe were not a wastepipe, a tucker fitting is used. This fitting is threaded on one endand has a socket on the other to allow for caulking. To get a goodidea of all the fittings in general use, the reader should get acatalogue from one of the fitting manufacturers and a survey of itwill give the names and sizes of the fittings. However, I show afew common ones. In the writer's opinion, the studying of thecatalogue would be of more benefit than a description of fittingsat this point. The sizes used and the methods employed to vent thewaste-pipe systems are the same as in cast-iron work. 

HANGERS AND SUPPORTS

The hanging of screw pipe is a very essential point. The taking ofthe strain off from a fitting or line of pipe by the use of ahanger is the means of avoiding serious trouble after a job iscompleted. On horizontal runs hangers are placed not more than 8feet apart. In a building constructed of wood, the hangers aresecured to the joists. In a building constructed of steel beams andconcrete the hangers are secured to the steel beams by means ofI-beam hangers that clamp on the beams; also in the case ofconcrete the hangers are extended through the floor and a T is puton the hanger on top of the cement floor; an iron bar or a shortpiece of smaller pipe run through the T holds the hanger in placeand secures it rigidly. The finished floor is laid over the hangerso that it does not show from the top. Hangers on the verticallines should be placed at every joint and under each fitting. Tohave the pipe in true alignment, the hangers must be hung andplaced in line. Every riser line must have an extra support at thebase to avoid any settling of the stack which will crack thefittings and break fixture connections. 

MEASUREMENTS

The proper installation of screw pipe work requires getting correctand accurate measurements. Every plumber is or should be able toget correct center to center, center to end, end to end, center toback, and end to back measurements. In Durham work 45° angles arecontinually occurring. To get these measurements correctly, thefollowing table has been compiled as used by the author and foundto be correct. The reader should memorize it so that it may be usedwithout referring to the book. 

 MEASUREMENTS

 ------------+------------+------------- Soil pipe | Screw pipe | Multiplier ------------+------------+------------- 1/6 bend | 60 | 1. 15 1/8 " | 45 | 1. 41 1/12 " | 30 | 2. 1/16 " | 22-1/2 | 2. 61 1/32 " | 11-1/4 | 5. 12 1/64 " | 5-5/8 | 10. 22 ------------+------------+-------------

Before any measurements are taken, the lines of pipe are laid outand the position of each fitting known. As I have stated before, the plumber must look ahead with his work. He must have the abilityof practically seeing the pipe in place before the work is started. This requires experience and judgment. Before the measurements aretaken and the pipe cut consideration must be given to the fact thatthe fittings and pipes must be screwed into position. Therefore, "can the fitting on the pipe be placed where it is laid out whenthis is considered?" must be one of the many questions a plumbershould ask himself. Allowance must be made for the chain tongs toswing. Whenever possible, a fitting is made up on the pipe whilethe pipe is in the vise. 

[Illustration: FIG. 76. --The offset is B or 12 inches center tocenter. The offset is made using 45 degree fittings. Therefore thelength of A from the center of one fitting to the center of theother is B × 1. 41 = 12 × 1. 41 = 16. 92 inches. ]

FIXTURE CONNECTIONS

The fixture connections when screw pipe is used are necessarilydifferent than when cast-iron pipe is used. A brass nipple is wipedon a piece of lead pipe and then screwed into the fitting left forthe closet connection. The lead is flanged over above the floor andthe closet set on it. The lead is soldered to a brass flange. Thebrass flange is secured to the floor and then the closet bowlsecured to the brass flange. Another method employed is to screw abrass flange into the fitting so that when it is made up the flangewill come level with the floor; the closet bowl is then secured tothis flange. There are a number of patented floor flanges forcloset bowl connections that can be used to advantage. Slop sinkshave practically the same connections as the closets. Otherfixtures such as the urinal, lavatory, and bath, can be connectedwith a short piece of lead wiped on a solder nipple, or thetrimmings for the fixture can be had with brass having iron pipesize threads, and the connection can then be made directly with theoutlet on the waste line. This is a very general way to describethe connections, but space will not allow a detailed description ofthese connections. It is always well to allow for short leadconnections for fixtures so that the lead will give if the stacksettles. 

CHAPTER XVII

GAS FITTING, PIPE AND FITTINGS, THREADING, MEASURING, AND TESTING

GAS AND ITS USE IN BUILDINGS

Gas is in common use in all classes of buildings today. Dwellingsuse it for cooking and illuminating, factories, office buildings, and public buildings for power. In some parts of the countrynatural gas is found. In these places it is used freely for heatingfuel. The actual making of gas is something that every plumbershould understand. If space permitted I would describe a gas plantwith all of its by-products. However, we shall deal only with theactual installation of gas piping in buildings. Gas mains are runthrough the streets the same as water mains are run. Branches aretaken off these mains and extended into the buildings requiringgas. The gas company generally installs the gas service pipe insideof the basement wall and places a stop cock on it free of charge. This stop that is placed on the pipe is a plug core type, thehandle for turning it off is square, and a wrench is required toturn it. The square top has a lug on it. There is also a lugcorresponding to it on the body of the valve. When the valve isshut off, these two lugs are together. Each lug has a hole in itlarge enough for a padlock ring to pass through. This gives the gascompany absolute control of the gas in the building. 

SETTING OF THE METER. --Every building that is supplied with gas hasa meter that registers the amount of gas consumed. This meter isplaced on the service pipe on the house side of the above-mentionedstop cock. This meter is furnished free of charge with a trivialcharge made for setting up. The actual setting of this meter is notmade until the piping throughout the building has had a thoroughand satisfactory test and is found free from all leaks. The metermust be set level on a substantial bracket and in a place, ifpossible, where it will not require an artificial light to read itsdial. The dry meter is usually used in dwellings. The interestingconstruction and mechanism of this meter cannot be discussed here. 

[Illustration: FIG. 77. --Gas-meter dials. ]

The reading of the dials on a gas meter comes in the province ofthe plumber and he should be able to read them. The sketch showsthe dial plate of a meter. The ordinary house meter has only threerecording dials. Large meters have five or more. To read the amountof gas consumed according to the meter we will read the dials asthey are indicated on Fig. 77. We will call the four dials No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 and No. 4. In each of these dials a completerevolution of the index hand denotes 1, 000, 10, 000, 100, 000 and1, 000, 000, cubic feet respectively. The index hands on No. 1 andNo. 3 revolve in the same direction, while No. 2 and No. 4 revolvein the opposite direction. Two ciphers are added to the figuresthat are indicated on the dials and the statement of the meter willbe had. To tell just how much gas has been consumed in a giventime, the statement of the meter is taken at the beginning of thisgiven time and at the end of the time. The difference in thefigures indicates the number of cubic feet of gas that have beenconsumed. A gas cock should be placed on the house side of themeter. The dials of meter read 658, 800 cubic feet. The dial havingthe highest number is read first No. 4 dial points to 6, thisindicates that No. 3 dial has revolved 6 times. Dial No. 3 reads 5, therefore the reading of dial No. 3 and No. 4 is 65. Dial No. 2reads 8 making the readings of the three dials 658. Dial No. 1reads 8 making the readings of the four dials 6588 add two ciphersto this figure and 658, 800 is the correct reading. 

[Illustration: FIG. 78. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 79. ]

PIPE AND FITTINGS. --The pipe used in gas fitting is wrought iron orsteel. In special places, rubber hose is used. Brass pipe isoccasionally used to advantage. The fittings used in iron pipe gaswork should be galvanized. No plain fittings should be allowed. Theplain fittings very often have sand holes in them and a leak willresult. Sometimes this leak does not appear until after the pipinghas been in use some time and the expense of replacing the fittingcan only be guessed at. By using galvanized fittings, this troublewill be eliminated. All fittings used should be of the beaded type. The fitting and measurement of this work is practically the same asdescribed under iron pipe work. To have the beginner get a cleareridea of gas-piping a building, the piping of the small buildingsketched will be gone over in detail and studied. One of the firstimportant steps that a gas fitter is confronted with is thelocating of the various lights and openings. With these located asshown on the plan, Figs. 78, 79 and 80, we will proceed to workout the piping. The first floor rise will be 1-inch, the secondfloor will be 1-inch. The horizontal pipe supplying the first flooroutlets will be 3/4-inch pipe. The horizontal pipe on the secondfloor will be 3/4-inch. The balance of the pipe will be 3/8- or1/2-inch. At this point your attention is called to the sketch ofpiping, sizes, and measurements. This sketch should be studied andunderstood in detail. The good mechanic will employ a sketch ofthis kind when installing any piping. The poor mechanic will taketwo or three measurements and get them out, put them in, and thenget some more. This method is extremely costly and unworkmanlike. There is no reason, except the ability of the workman, why hecannot take a building like the sketch and get all the pipingmeasurements for the job, then get them out, go to the job and putthem in. The amount of time saved in this way is so great that aworkman should not consider himself a full-fledged mechanic untilhe can get the measurements this way, and get them accurately. Witha tape line, gimlet, and plumb-bob, a mechanic is fully equippedwith tools to get his measurements. If the measurements are takenwith a tape line, the same tape line should be used when measuringthe pipe and cutting it. When laying out the piping, never allow ajoist to be cut except within 6 inches of its bearing. It is goodpolicy never to cut timber unless absolutely necessary and thenonly after consulting with the carpenter. When joists have to benotched they should be cut only on the top side. The pipe as it isput in place should be braced rigidly. Wherever there is an outletpipe extending through the wall, the pipe should be braced fromall sides so that when the fixture is screwed in it will beperfectly rigid. 

[Illustration: FIG. 80. ]

[Illustration: FIG. 81. --Pipe sketch. ]

The measurements on the piping sketch, Fig. 81, are taken from theaccompanying sketch of a dwelling, and if they were to be actuallyput in, they would fit. The reader would do well to copy thissketch and follow the piping and check the measurements accordingto the plan, and note how the different risers, drops, etc. , aredrawn. It is not necessary in a sketch of this kind to draw to ascale. After the different measurements are the letters _C. C. _, _E. C. _, _E. E. _, _C. B. _ and _E. B. _, meaning center to center, end tocenter, end to end, center to back, and end to back, respectively. Offsetting pipe is a very convenient way of getting the pipe orfittings back to the wall for support. To offset pipe properly andwith little trouble, take a piece of scantling 2 by 4 and brace itbetween the floor and ceiling. Bore a few different-sized holesthrough it and you will have a very handy device for offsettingpipe. There is a little trick in offsetting pipe that one will haveto practice to obtain. The pipe must be held firmly in the placewhere the pipe is to be bent. Large offsets and bends should not bemade; 2 to 4 inches is as large as should be used. Larger offsetsthat are required should be made with fittings. Always make theoffsets true and have the ends perfectly straight. Before putting apiece of pipe permanently in place, always look or blow through it, to ascertain if its bore is obstructed or not. Sometimes dirt orslag will collect and cause stoppage. 

READING THE PIPE SKETCH. --Vertical lines represent vertical pipes(see Fig. 81). Horizontal lines represent horizontal pipes runningparallel to the front. Diagonal lines represent horizontal pipesrunning from back to front. Any line that is drawn perpendicular toany other line stands for a horizontal pipe. A diagonal lineseparating a vertical line or horizontal line or set of linesrepresents a different horizontal plane. With this explanation thesketch will be made clear to one after drawing it. The readershould now take each measurement and check it on the plan. This iseasily done by using a scale rule. The height of the ceiling is8-1/2 feet on the first floor, the second floor is 8 feet. Thefirst floor joists are 10 inches, the second floor joists are 9inches. An outlet is indicated by a small circle. In the pipingsketch, this circle is connected with the riser or drop by ahorizontal line. At the junction of these two lines a shortperpendicular line is drawn, and indicates the direction of theoutlet. 

Let me again emphasize the need to understand thoroughly thispiping sketch, and to become so familiar with it that it canreadily be put to use. The value of a mechanic is determined by thequality and the quantity of work that he can turn out; and amechanic who can lay out his work and see it completed before hestarts, and then proceeds to install his work, is by far of morevalue to his employer than the man who can see only far enoughahead to cut out two or three measurements and spends most of histime walking between the vise and place of installing the pipe. 

TESTING. --The system of gas piping must be tested before the pipeshave been covered by the advance of building operations. If the jobis of considerable size, the job can be tested in sections, and iffound tight the sections can be covered. The necessity of havingthe piping rigidily secured can be appropriately explained here. Ifthe test has been made and the system found tight and some pipethat is not securely anchored is accidentally or otherwise pushedout of place and bent by some of the mechanics working about thebuilding, a leak may be caused and yet not discovered until thefinal test is made after the plastering is finished. The expenseand trouble thus caused is considerable and could have been avoidedby simply putting in the proper supports for the pipe. 

To test the piping, an air pump and a gage connected with the pipesare placed in a convenient position. The job should now bethoroughly gone over, making sure that all plugs and caps are onand that no outlet is open, also that all pipe that is to be put inhas been installed. After this has been attended to, the pump isoperated until 10 pounds is registered on the gage. The connectionleading to the pump and the piping is now shut off. If the gagedrops rapidly, there is a bad leak in the system. This leak shouldbe found without difficulty and repaired. If the gage drops slowly, it denotes a very small leak, such as a sand hole or a bad thread. This kind of leak is more troublesome to find. When it has beenfound, the pipe or fitting causing the leak should be taken out andreplaced. If black caps have been used to cap the outlets, thechances are that a sand hole will be found in one of them. Nothingbut galvanized fittings should be used. In case the small leakmentioned above cannot be found by going over the pipe once, thereare other means of locating the leak. Two of the methods used, Iwill explain. If the job is small, each fitting is painted withsoap suds until the fitting is found that causes the leak. If theleak is not in the fittings, then the pipe can be gone over in thesame way. As soon as the soap suds strikes the leak, a large bubbleis made and the leak discovered. It is possible that there are moreleaks, so the gage is noted and if it still drops, the searchshould be continued. The pump should be operated to keep thepressure up to 10 pounds while the search is being made for theleak. When the gage stands at 10 pounds without dropping, the jobis then tight. The pump and gage fitting should be gone over firstto ascertain if they leak. The other method employed to discoverleaks is to force a little ether or oil of peppermint (not essence)into the system by means of the pump. A leak can readily be notedby the odor. To make this method successful, the ether orpeppermint should not be handled by the men who are to hunt for theleak. The bottle containing the fluid should not be opened in thebuilding except to pour some into the piping, otherwise the odorwill get into the building and as the odor comes out of the leak itwill not be noted. For the benefit of the gas fitter, the pipingshould be tested again after the plastering is completed. The nexttest is made when the fixtures are put on, and as the piping istight any leak that develops in this test indicates that thefixtures leak. There are in common use various methods to stopleaks in gas pipe when they are found. If a piece of piping or afitting is defective, it should be taken out and replaced. Thisshould be remembered so that while the piping is being installedany defects should be noted and the defective fitting or pipethrown out. Before the gas job is accepted, the gas company willinspect it and look for traps and sags in the pipe. Therefore, thepiping should be installed without any traps and it should bearranged to pitch toward the meter, or toward a convenient placefrom which any condensation can be taken out. If provision is notmade for this condensation, it will accumulate and stop the flow ofgas. 

SHOWER-BATH CONNECTIONS

[Illustration: FIG. 82. --Shower stall with lead pan extendingoutside of stall. ]

The sketches show clearly the methods employed to make ashower-bath waste and stall water-tight. The shower bath, as aseparate fixture, is in use and the demand for it as a separatefixture is increasing rapidly. This demand comes from the owners ofprivate houses. The plumber must therefore devise some way to makethese connections tight and prevent any leak from showing in theroom below. This fixture is so constructed that all waste pipesand trap come under the floor level with no way of getting to themfrom below. Therefore the piping for this fixture must be of apermanent nature. No pipe or trap made of material that is liableto give out in a short time should be allowed under a shower-bathfixture or stall. The two sketches, Figs. 82 and 83 illustrate twomethods of connecting and making tight a shower stall. A plumbershould always consider it his special duty to make his workcomplete and free from all objections. He should always prepare forany emergency that may occur in the future. This is rather a bigtask, yet the plumber when accepting all of his responsibilitieshas a big task. I state this to the beginner and emphasize theall-important fact that he must learn to perform and think deeplyof the elements of plumbing to be able later on to handlesuccessfully the problems that present themselves in the plumbingtrade. 

[Illustration: FIG. 83. --Shower stall with lead pan extending sixinches beyond strainer. ]

The heavy brass trap shown in the sketch has proved itself verysatisfactory and can be made to fit almost any condition of pipingor building construction. A flashing of sheet lead is soldered onthe trap and carried out to the outside edge of the stall where itis turned up 1 inch, or to the floor level. When the flashing iscarried out for only a foot on each side of the trap, thepossibilities of a leak are greater. 

CHAPTER XVIII

PLUMBING CODES

The work of plumbing has a direct result on the health of theoccupants of buildings; therefore in order that the plumbing maynot be installed improperly and impair the health of the occupants, it is necessary to provide a code governing the installation ofplumbing. Naturally these laws at first were under the control ofthe health department of cities, but of late years the buildingdepartments have assumed control of the codes with the result thatcoöperation with the building codes is now the practice rather thanthe exception. 

To make certain the carrying out of the plumbing codes, it isrequired that a plan indicating the run, size, and length of pipes, location and number of fixtures of the prospective job be filed inthe building department of the city, before the work is started. Ifthe plan is approved by the plumbing inspector and acceptance issent, then the work can be started. After a job is completed a testis made and the job is inspected by the plumbing inspector, and iffound to meet requirements a written acceptance of the work isgiven by the building department. An effort is being madethroughout the country to have the plumbing codes under Statecontrol rather than have a number of different codes in as manydifferent cities and towns. The State code can be so arranged thatit will apply to either city or town. 

The installation of plumbing varies in different States. In thenorthern part of the United States all pipes which pass through theroof, if less than 4-inch must be increased to 4-inch. A pipesmaller than 4-inch will be filled with hoar frost during thewinter and render the pipe useless to perform its function as avent pipe. Pipes laid under ground in the Northern States must beat least 4 feet below the surface to protect them from freezing. Inthe Southern States the frost does not penetrate the ground to sucha distance and the pipes can be laid on the surface. 

Following is a State or City plumbing code insofar as it relates tothe actual installation of plumbing. 

 SEC. 1. PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. --There shall be a separate plan for each building, public or private, or any addition thereto, or alterations thereof, accompanied by specifications showing the location, size and kind of pipe, traps, closets and fixtures to be used, which plans and specifications shall be filed with the board or bureau of buildings. The said plans and specifications shall be furnished by the architect, plumber or owner, and filed by the plumber. All applications for change in plans must be made in writing. 

 SEC. 2. FILING PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. --Plumbers before commencing the construction of plumbing work in any building (except in case of repairs, which are here defined to relate to the mending of leaks in soil, vent, or waste pipes, faucets, valves and water-supply pipes, and shall not be construed to admit of the replacing of any fixture, such as water closets, bath tubs, lavatories, sinks, etc. , or the respective traps for such fixtures) shall submit to the bureau plans and specifications, legibly drawn in ink, on blanks to be furnished by said board or bureau. Where two or more buildings are located together and on the same street, and the plumbing work is identical in each, one plan will be sufficient. Plans will be approved or rejected within 24 hours after their receipt. 

 SEC. 3. MATERIAL OF HOUSE DRAIN AND SEWER. --House drains or soil pipes laid beneath floor must be extra heavy cast-iron pipe, with leaded and caulked joints, and carried 5 feet outside cellar wall. All drains and soil pipes connected with main drain where it is above the cellar floor shall be extra heavy cast-iron pipe with leaded joints properly secured or of heavy wrought-iron pipe with screw joints properly secured and carried 5 feet outside cellar wall and all arrangements for soil and waste pipes shall be run as direct as possible. Changes of direction on pipes shall be made with "Y"-branches, both above and below the ground, and where such pipes pass through a new foundation-wall a relieving arch shall be built over it, with a 2-inch space on either side of the pipe. 

 SEC. 4. --The size of main house drain shall be determined by the total area of the buildings and paved surfaces to be drained, according to the following table, if iron pipe is used. If the pipe is terra-cotta the pipe shall be one size larger than for the same amount of area drainage. 

 ----------+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- Diameter | Fall 1/4 inch per foot | Fall 1/2 inch per foot ----------+-----------------------------+--------------------------------- 4 inches | 1, 800 square feet drainage | 2, 500 square feet drainage area 5 inches | 3, 000 square feet drainage | 4, 500 square feet drainage area 6 inches | 5, 000 square feet drainage | 7, 500 square feet drainage area 8 inches | 9, 100 square feet drainage | 13, 600 square feet drainage area 10 inches | 14, 000 square feet drainage | 20, 000 square feet drainage area ----------+-----------------------------+---------------------------------

 The main house drains may be decreased in diameter beyond the rain-water conductor or surface inlet by permission of the bureau, when the plans show that the conditions are such as to warrant such decrease, but in no case shall the main house drain be less than 4 inches in diameter. 

 SEC. 5. MAIN TRAP. --An iron running trap with two clean-outs must be placed in the house drain near the front wall of the house, and on the sewer side of all connections. If placed outside the house or below the cellar floor the clean-outs must extend to surface with brass screw cap ferrules caulked in. If outside the house, it must never be placed less than 4 feet below the surface of the ground. 

 SEC. 6. FRESH-AIR INLET. --A fresh-air inlet pipe must be connected with the house drain just inside of the house trap and extended to the outer air, terminating with a return bend, or a vent cap or a grating with an open end 1 foot above grade at the most available point to be determined by the building department. 

 The fresh-air inlet pipe must be 4 inches in diameter for house drains of 6 inches or less and as much larger as the building department may direct for house drains more than 6 inches in diameter. 

 SEC. 7. LAYING OF HOUSE SEWERS AND DRAINS. --House sewers and house drains must, where possible, be given an even grade to the main sewer of not less than 1/4 inch to the foot. Full-sized "Y"- and "T"-branch fittings for handhole clean-outs must be provided where required on house drain and its branches. No clean-out need be larger than 6 inches. 

 SEC. 8. FLOOR DRAINS. --Floor or other drains will only be permitted when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the department of building that their use is absolutely necessary, and arrangements made to maintain a permanent water seal, and be provided with check or back-water valves. 

 SEC. 9. WEIGHT AND THICKNESS OF CAST-IRON PIPE. --All cast-iron pipes must be uncoated excepting all laid under ground, which shall be thoroughly tarred, sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from cracks, sand holes and other defects, and of uniform thickness and of grade known to commerce as extra heavy. Cast-iron pipe including the hub shall weigh not less than the following weights per linear foot:

 2-inch pipe 5-1/2 pounds per foot. 3-inch pipe 9-1/2 pounds per foot. 4-inch pipe 13 pounds per foot. 5-inch pipe 17 pounds per foot. 6-inch pipe 20 pounds per foot. 7-inch pipe 27 pounds per foot. 8-inch pipe 33-1/2 pounds per foot. 10-inch pipe 45 pounds per foot. 12-inch pipe 54 pounds per foot. 

 All cast-iron pipe must be tested to 50 pounds and marked with the maker's name. 

 All joints in cast-iron pipe must be made with picked oakum and molten lead and caulked gas-tight. Twelve ounces of soft pig lead must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter of the pipe. 

 SEC. 10. WROUGHT-IRON AND STEEL PIPE. --All wrought-iron and steel pipe shall be galvanized. Fittings used for drainage must be galvanized and of recess type known as drainage fittings. All fittings used for venting shall be galvanized and of the style known as steam pattern. No plain black pipe or fittings will be permitted. 

 SEC. 11. SUB-SOIL DRAINS. --Sub-soil drains must be discharged into a sump or receiving tank, the contents of which must be lifted and discharged into the drainage system above the cellar floor by some approved method. Where directly sewer-connected, they must be cut off from the rest of the building and plumbing system by a brass flap valve on the inlet to the catch basin and the trap on the drain from the catch basin must be water-supplied. 

 SEC. 12. YARD AND AREA DRAINS. --All yard, area and court drains when sewer-connected must have connection not less than 4 inches in diameter. They should be controlled by one trap--the leader trap if possible. All yards, areas and courts must be drained. Tenement houses and lodging houses must have yards, areas and courts drained into sewer. 

 SEC. 13. USE OF OLD DRAINS AND SEWERS. --Old house drains and sewers may be used in connection with new buildings or new plumbing, only when they are found, on examination by the department of building, to conform in all respects to the requirements governing new sewers and drains. All extensions to old house drains must be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe. 

 SEC. 14. LEADER PIPES. --All building shall be provided with proper metallic leaders for conducting water from the roofs in such manner as shall protect the walls and foundations of such buildings from injury. In no case shall the water from such leaders be allowed to flow upon the sidewalk but the same shall be conducted by a pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there is no sewer in the street upon which such building fronts, then the water from said leader shall be conducted, by proper pipes below the surface of the sidewalk, to the street gutter. 

 Inside leaders shall be constructed of cast iron, wrought iron or steel, with roof connections made gas-and water-tight by means of heavy copper drawn tubing slipped into the pipe. The tubing must slip at least 7 inches into the pipe. Outside leaders may be of sheet metal, but they must connect with the house drain by means of cast-iron pipe extending vertically 5 feet above grade level, where the building is located along public driveways or sidewalks. Where the building is located off building line, and not liable to be damaged the connection shall be made with iron pipe extending 1 foot above the grade level. 

 All leaders must be trapped with running traps of cast iron, so placed as to prevent freezing. 

 Rain leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent pipes, nor shall such pipes be used as rain leaders. 

 SEC. 15. --EXHAUST FROM STEAM PIPES, ETC. --No steam discharge or exhaust, blow-off or drip pipe shall connect with the sewer or the house drain, leader, soil pipe, waste or vent pipe. Such pipes shall discharge into a tank or condenser, from which suitable outlet to the sewer shall be made. Such condenser shall be supplied with water, to help condensation and help protect the sewer, and shall also be supplied with relief vent to carry off dry steam. 

 SEC. 16. DIAMETER OF SOIL PIPE. --The smallest diameter of soil pipe permitted to be used shall be 4 inches. The size of soil pipes must not be less than those set forth in the following tables. 

 Maximum number of fixtures connected to:

 -------------+-------------------------+------------------------------ Size of pipe | Waste and soil combined | Soil pipe alone +------------+------------+---------------+-------------- | Branch | Main | Branch | Main | fixtures | fixtures | water closets | water closets -------------+------------+------------+---------------+-------------- 4-inch | 48 | 96 | 8 | 16 4. 5-inch | 96 | 192 | 16 | 32 6-inch | 268 | 336 | 34 | 68 -------------+------------+------------+---------------+--------------

 If the building is six (6) and less than twelve (12) stories in height, the diameter shall not be less than 5 inches. If more than twelve (12) it shall be 6 inches, in diameter. A building six (6) or more stories in height, with fixtures located below the sixth floor, soil pipe 4 inches in diameter will be allowed to extend through the roof provided the number of fixtures does not exceed the number given in the table. All soil pipes must extend at least 2 feet above the highest window, and must not be reduced in size. Traps will not be permitted on main, vertical, soil or waste-pipe lines. Each house must have a separate line of soil and vent pipes. No soil or waste line shall be constructed on the outside of a building. 

 Fixtures with: 1 to 1-1/4-inch traps count as one fixture. 1 to 1-1/2 " traps count as one fixture. 1 to 2 " traps count as two fixtures. 1 to 2-1/2 " traps count as three fixtures. 1 to 3 " traps (water closets) count as four fixtures. 1 to 4 " traps count as five fixtures. 

 SEC. 17. CHANGE IN DIRECTION. --All sewer, soil, and waste pipes must be as direct as possible. Changes in direction must be made with "Y"- or half "Y"-branches or one-eighth bends. Offsets in soil or waste pipes will not be permitted when they can be avoided, nor, in any case unless suitable provision is made to prevent the accumulation of rust or other obstruction. Offsets must be made with fourth degree bends or similar fittings. The use of T "Y"s (sanitary Ts) will be permitted on upright lines only. 

 SEC. 18. JOINTS ON SOIL AND WASTE PIPES. --Connection on lead and cast-iron pipe shall be made with brass sleeve or ferrule, of the same size as the lead pipe inserted in the hub of the iron pipe, and caulked with lead. The lead must be attached to the ferrule by means of a wiped joint. Joints between lead and wrought-iron pipes must be made with brass nipple, of same size as lead pipe. The lead pipe must be attached to the brass nipple by means of a wiped joint. All connections of lead waste pipes must be made by means of wiped joints. 

 Short nipples on wrought-iron and steel pipes must be of thickness and weight known as "extra heavy" or "extra strong. "

 Brass ferrules must be best quality, extra heavy cast brass, not less than 4 inches long and 2-1/4, 3-1/2 and 4-1/2 inches in diameter and not less than the following weights:

 Diameters Weights 2-1/4 inches 1 pound 0 ounce. 3-1/2 inches 1 pound 12 ounces. 4-1/2 inches 2 pounds 8 ounces. 

 SEC. 19. SOLDER NIPPLES. --Solder nipples must be heavy cast brass or of brass pipe, iron pipe size. When cast they must be not less than the following weights:

 Diameters Weights 1-1/2 inches 0 pound 8 ounces. 2 inches 0 pound 14 ounces. 2-1/2 inches 1 pound 6 ounces. 3 inches 2 pounds 0 ounce. 4 inches 3 pounds 8 ounces. 

 SEC. 20. BRASS CLEAN-OUTS. --Brass screw caps for clean-outs must be extra heavy, not less than 1/8 inch thick. The screw cap must have a solid square or hexagonal nut not less than 1 inch high and a least diameter of 1-1/2 inches. The body of the clean-out ferrule must be at least equal in weight and thickness to the caulking ferrule for the same size pipe. 

 SEC. 21. LEAD WASTE PIPE. --All lead waste, soil vent and flush pipes must be of the best quality, known in commerce as "_D_, " and of not less than the following weights per linear foot:

 Diameters Weights 1-1/4 inches 2-1/2 pounds. 1-1/2 inches 3 pounds. 2 inches 4 pounds. 3 inches 6 pounds. 4 inches 8 pounds. 

 All lead traps and bends must be of the same weight and thicknesses as their corresponding pipe branches. 

 SEC. 22. ROOF FLASHERS. --Sheet lead for roof flashings must be 6-pound lead and must extend not less than 6 inches from the pipe and the joint made water-tight. 

 SEC. 23. TRAPS FOR BATH TUBS, WATER CLOSETS, ETC. --Every sink, bath tub, basin, water closet, slop hopper, or fixtures having a waste pipe, must be furnished with a trap, which shall be placed as close as practicable to the fixture that it serves and in no case shall it be more than 1 foot. The waste pipe from the bath tub or other fixtures must not be connected with a water-closet trap. 

 SEC. 24. SIZE OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL WASTE PIPES, TRAPS AND BRANCHES. --

 Horizontal and vertical Number of small fixtures 1-1/4-inch 1 1-1/2-inch 2 2 -inch 3 to 8 2-1/2-inch 9 to 20 3 -inch 21 to 44

 If building is ten (10) or more stories in height, the vertical waste pipe shall not be less than 3 inches in diameter. The use of wrought-iron pipe for waste pipe 2 inches or less in diameter is prohibited. 

 The size of traps and waste branches, for a given fixture, shall be as follows:

 ---------------------------------------------+------------------ | Size in inches Kind of fixtures +-------+---------- | Trap | Branch ---------------------------------------------+-------+---------- Water closet | 3 | 4 Slop sink with trap combined | 3 | 3 Slop sink ordinary | 2 | 2 Pedestal urinal | 3 | 3 Floor drain or wash | 4 | 4 Yard drain or catch basin | 4 | 4 Urinal trough | 2 | 2 Laundry trays, two or five | 2 | 2 Combination sink and tray (for each fixture) | 1-1/2 | 2 Kitchen sinks, small | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 Kitchen sinks, large hotel, etc. | | Kitchen sinks, grease trap | | 2 Pantry sinks | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 Wash basin, one only | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4 Bath tub | 2 | 2 Shower baths | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 Shower baths, floor | 2 | 2 Sitz bath | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 Drinking fountains | 1-1/4 | 1-1/4 ---------------------------------------------+-------+----------

 SEC. 25. OVERFLOW PIPES. --Overflow pipes from fixtures must in all cases be connected on the inlet side of the traps. 

 SEC. 26. SETTING OF TRAPS WITHOUT RE-VENT. --All traps must be substantially supported and set true with respect to their water levels. No pot, bottle or "D" trap will be permitted nor any form of trap that is not self-cleaning, nor that has interior chambers or mechanism nor any trap except earthenware ones that depend upon interior partitions for a seal. In case there is an additional fixture required in building and it is impossible to re-vent pipe for the trap, the building department may designate the kind of trap to be used. This shall not be construed to allow traps without re-vents in new buildings. 

 SEC. 27. SAFE AND REFRIGERATOR PIPES. --Safe-waste pipes must not connect directly with any part of the plumbing system. Safe-waste pipes must discharge over an open, water-supplied, publicly-placed, ordinary-used sink, placed not more than 3-1/2 feet above the cellar floor. The safe waste from a refrigerator must be trapped at the bottom of the line only and must not discharge upon the ground floor, but over an ordinary open pan, or some properly-trapped, water-supplied sink, as above. In no case shall the refrigerator waste pipe discharge into a sink located in a living room. 

 The branches on vertical lines must be made by means of "Y" fittings and be carried to the safe with as much pitch as possible. Where there is an offset on the refrigerator waste pipe in the cellar, there must be clean-outs placed. These clean-outs must be of brass. 

 In tenement and lodging houses the refrigerator waste pipe must extend above the roof, and not be larger than 1-1/2 inches and the branches not smaller than 1-1/4 inches. Refrigerator waste pipes, except in tenement houses, and all safe-waste pipes, must have brass flap valve on the lower ends. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over beveled strips at their edges. 

 SEC. 28. VENT-PIPE MATERIAL. --Material for vent pipes shall be of lead, brass, enameled iron or galvanized iron. 

 SEC. 29. VENTILATION OF TRAPS AND SOIL LINES. --Traps shall be protected from siphonage or air pressure by special vent pipes of a size of not less than the following tables:

 -----------------+----------------+----------------------------- | Maximum | Number of traps vented | length in feet | Size of pipe +----------------+------------+---------------- | Mains | Branch | Main vertical -----------------+----------------+------------+---------------- 1-1/4-inch vent | 20 feet | 1 | 1-1/2-inch vent | 40 feet | 2 or less | 2-inch vent | 65 feet | 10 or less | 20 or less 2-1/2-inch vent | 100 feet | 20 or less | 40 or less 3-inch vent | 10 or more | 60 or less | 100 or less | stories | | -----------------+----------------+------------+----------------

 The branch vent shall not be less than the following sizes:

 1-1/4 inches in diameter for 1-1/4 inch trap. 1-1/2 inches in diameter for 1-1/2 inch to 2-1/2 inch trap. 2 inches in diameter for 3 inch to 4 inch trap. One-half their diameter, for traps 3 inches and over. 

 Where two or more closets are placed side by side, on a horizontal branch, the branch line shall have a relief extended as a loop. A pipe 2 inches in diameter shall be sufficient as a loop vent for two closets. A pipe 3 inches in diameter shall be sufficient as a relief for three or four closets; and where more than four closets are located on the same branch the relief shall not be less than 4 inches in diameter. All house drains and soil lines on which a water closet is located must have a 4-inch main vent line. Where an additional closet is located in the cellar or basement, and within 10 feet of main soil or vent line, no relief vent will be required for said closet; but where it is more than 10 feet, a 2-inch vent line will be required. Relief vent pipes for water closets must not be less than 2 inches in diameter, for a length of 40 feet, and not less than 3 inches in diameter, for more than 40 feet. 

 No re-vent from traps under bell traps will be required. 

 In any building having a sewer connection with a private or public sewer used for bell-trap connections or floor drainage only, a 2-inch relief line must be extended to the roof of the building from rear end of main. House drains, constructed for roof drainage only, will not require a relief vent. 

 A floor trap for a shower shall be vented, unless located in the cellar or ground floor the paving of which renders the trap inaccessible. 

 SEC. 30. HORIZONTAL VENT PIPES. --Where rows of fixtures are placed in a line, fitting of not less than 45° to the horizontal must be used on vent lines to prevent filling with rust or condensation; except on brick or tile walls, where it is necessary to channel same for pipes, 90° fittings will be allowed. Trapped vent pipes are strictly prohibited. No vent pipe from the house side of any trap shall connect with the ventilation pipe or with sewer, soil or waste pipe. 

 SEC. 31. OFFSET ON VENT LINES. --All offsets on vent lines must be made at an angle of not less than 45° to the horizontal, and all lines must be connected at the bottom with a soil or waste pipe, or the drain, in such manner as to prevent the accumulation of rust, scale or condensation. 

 No sheet metal, brick, or other flue shall be used as a vent pipe. 

 SEC. 32. SETTING OF FIXTURES. --All fixtures must be set open and free from all enclosing woodwork. Water closets and urinals must not be connected directly or flushed from the water-supply pipes except when flushometer valves are used. Each water closet must be flushed from a separate cistern, the water from which is used for no other purpose, or may be flushed through flushometer valves. 

 Rubber connection and elbows are not permitted. 

 Pan, plunger, or hopper closets will not be permitted in any building. No range closet either wet or dry, nor any evaporating system of closets shall be constructed or allowed inside of any building. 

 A separate building constructed especially for the purpose, must be provided in which such range closets shall be set. 

 All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor flange plates, soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap flange, and the joint made permanently secure and gas-tight. 

 In all buildings sewer-connected there must be at least one water closet in each building. There must be a sufficient number of water closets so that there will never be more than 15 people to each water closet. 

 Separate water closets and toilet rooms must be provided for each sex in buildings used as workshops, office buildings, factories, hotels and all places of public assembly. 

 In all buildings the water closet and urinal apartments must be ventilated into the outer air by windows opening on the same lot as the building is situated on or by a ventilating skylight placed over each room or apartment where such fixtures are located. 

 In all buildings the outside partition of any water closet or urinal apartment must be air-tight and extend to the ceiling or be independently ceiled over. When necessary to light such apartments properly the upper part of the partition must be provided with translucent glass. The interior partitions of such apartments must be dwarfed partitions. 

 In alteration work where it is not practicable to ventilate a closet or urinal apartment by windows or skylight to the outer air, there must be provided a sheet-iron duct extending to the outer air, the area of the duct must be at least 144 square inches for one water closet or urinal, and an additional 72 square inches for each addition closet or urinal added therein. 

 SEC. 33. URINALS. --All urinals must be constructed of materials impervious to moisture and that will not corrode under the action of urine. The floors and walls of urinal apartments must be lined with similar non-absorbent and non-corrosive material. 

 The platforms and treads of urinal stalls must be connected independently of the plumbing system, nor can they be connected with any safe-waste pipe. 

 The copper lining of water closet and urinal cisterns must not be lighter than 12 ounces copper, and must be stamped on lining with maker's name. Where lead is used it must not weigh less than 4 pounds to the square foot. All other materials are prohibited. 

 SEC. 34. FIXTURES PROHIBITED. --Wooden wash trays, sinks, or bath tubs are prohibited inside buildings. Such fixtures must be constructed of non-absorbent materials. Cement or artificial stone tubs will not be permitted, unless approved by the plumbing inspector and building department. 

 Yard water closets will not be permitted except as approved by the plumbing inspector and then passed by the building department. 

 SEC. 35. PRIVY VAULTS AND CESSPOOLS. --No privy vault or cesspool for sewage, shall be constructed in any part of the city where a sewer is at all accessible. In parts of the city where no sewer exists privy vaults and cesspools shall not be located within 2 feet of party or street line nor within 20 feet of any building. Before these are constructed application for permission therefore shall be made to the building department. 

 SEC. 36. MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP. --All material used in the work of plumbing and drainage must be of good quality and free from defects. The work must be executed in a thorough and workmanlike manner. 

INDEX

 A

 Acid, muriatic, 12

 B

 Banjo, 120

 Bath-tub, 5-6-7 size waste, 99

 Bending irons, 15, 48, 59

 Bib, wiping, 59, 68

 Bowls, closet, 4, 5

 C

 Caulking joints, 89, 90

 Cellar drainer, 84

 Cement, pipe joint, 122

 Cementing, 72, 73

 Circulation, hot water, 124, 129

 Closets, 3, 4, 5

 Cocks, stop and waste, 120

 Code-plumbing, 153 brass clean-outs, 160 change in direction, 159 diameter of soil pipes, 158 exhaust from steam pipes, 158 filing plans, 154 floor drains, 156 fresh-air inlet, 155 joints, 159 laying of drains, 156 lead waste pipe, 160 leader pipes, 157 main trap, 155 materials of drains, 154 old drains and sewers, 157 over-flow pipes, 162 plans and specification, 154 roof flashers, 160 safe and refrigerator pipes, 162 size of drains, 155 of waste pipes, 161 solder nipples, 160 traps, 160 without vents, 162 yard and area drains, 157

 Code, fixtures prohibited, 165 horizontal vents, 164 material and workmanship, 166 offsets, 164 privy vaults and cesspools, 166 setting of fixtures, 164 urinals, 165 vent, pipe material, 162 ventilation of traps, 162

 Connecting, sewers, 74

 Connections, of fixtures, 139

 Corporation cock and tap, 76-77

 Coupling, right and left, 116

 Covering, pipe, 131

 Cup joint, 14-66

 Curb cock, 77-81 box, 78-81

 Cutters, pipe, 113

 Cutting, terra-cotta pipe, 72 cast-iron pipe, 93

 D

 Dies, 112

 Drainage, 2

 Drains, 82, 83, 84, 87, 92

 Drift plugs, 18

 Drum trap, 61, 65, 68, 107

 Durham work, 134

 E

 Earthenware, 3-5

 Expansion joints, 129

 F

 Ferrule, brass, 37-43

 File, 15

 Fittings, drainage, 136 gas, 143 screw pipe, 98 soil pipe, 96

 Fixtures, 3

 Flushing, 3

 Flux, 12

 Fresh-air inlet, 105

 G

 Gas pipe and fittings, 143 piping, 141, 144

 Goose neck, 81

 H

 Half and half solder, 21

 Hammer, 15

 Hangers, 121, 137

 Heaters, flue connection, 130 gas coil, 126 instantaneous, 127

 Hot water supply, 124

 House drains, 86 traps, 87, 104

 I

 Inserting, terra-cotta pipe, 74

 Intercepting trap, 92, 93

 Iron enamelled ware, 3

 J

 Joints, amount of lead and oakum, 97 caulk, 87, 89 cup, 14 expansion, 129 of sub-soil, 84 overcast, 17 runner, 90 rust, 97 seams, 19 solder, 14

 K

 Kitchen sinks, 99

 L

 Lavatories, 8, 99

 Lead connection, 78 used in caulked joints, 89, 97

 Lead pipe, for water mains, 80 preparing for wiping, 45 use of, 27

 Leaders, pipes and traps, 93

 Long screws, 115

 M

 Main sewer, 81

 Mason trap, 104

 Measurements of piping, 146

 Melting point of metals, 21

 Metal, wiping, 31

 Meter, reading gas, 142

 N

 Nipples, cutting and threading, 114 holders, 114

 O

 Oakum, use of, 89, 97

 Overcast joint, 17, 67

 P

 Paste, 13

 Pipe, brass, 80 covering, 131 cutting, 93 kinds of, 122 service, 81 soil, location, 95 steel, 97 tell-tale, 100 terra-cotta, 69 threading, 110 wrought iron, 97

 Pipe laying, sewer, 71 water, 78 in tunnel, 73

 Piping, water, 120 drainage, 135

 Planking, 70, 71

 Pressure, water, 119

 R

 Rain leaders, 86

 Reaming, 135

 Receptors, showers, 99

 Refill, trench, 75, 79 tunnels, 79

 Right and left couplings, 116

 S

 Sanitary drains, 91, 92

 Screw-pipe work, 134

 Seams, 19, 67

 Sewerage, system of, 86

 Sewers, 69, 81

 Shoe, use of, 75

 Shower stall, 150

 Sinks, 2

 Soil pipe, 95, 96

 Soils, 13

 Soldering iron, 11, 15, 66

 Solders, 21

 Stopcock, 45, 68, 81, 120

 Sulphur, 97

 Swab, 73, 81

 T

 Tables, angle measurements, 138, 139 brass ferrules, 160 fixtures and traps, 161 lead waste pipe, 160 measurements, 116 roof drainage, 155 screw-pipe, 134 size of vent pipes, 163 of waste pipe, 99 soil and waste pipe, 158 standard, threads, 110 terra-cotta pipe, 75 waste pipe, 161 weight of cast-iron pipe, 156 of solder nipples, 160

 Tallow, 13

 Tank, storage connections of, 125

 Tell-tale pipe, 100

 Terra-cotta pipe, 69, 75, 83 cutting, 72

 Testing, gas pipe, 148

 Thermostat, 124, 126

 Tinning, brass, 38, 42, 45 bib, 59

 Tools, bending iron, 15 caulking iron, 89 cold chisel, 89, 93 file, 15 hammer, 15 joint runner, 90 ladle, 29 pipe cutters, 113 rasp, 15 saw, 15 shave hook, 15 soldering iron, 15 tap-borer, 15, 47, 59 turn pin, 15 vise, 111 yarning iron, 89

 Traps, bag, 109 centrifugal, 109 cleansweep, 108 drum, 107 flask, 108 house, 104 intercepting, 92 mechanical, 109 non-syphoning, 107 "S, " 109 sure-seal, 109

 Trenches, digging, 70, 81, 87 refilling, 75 water service, 76

 Tubs, bath, 6

 Tunnels, 73

 U

 Urinals, 99

 V

 Valves, check, 128 closet, 4 safety, 128

 Ventilation pipe, 101

 Vents, 100-103

 W

 Wash trays, 86, 99

 Water connection, 76 supply, 118 rivers and lakes, 119 streams and brooks, 118 under pressure, 119 underground, 118

 Wiping, 29 bib, 59 branch joints, 49 cloths, 67 drum trap, 61 2-inch brass ferrule, 40 4-inch brass ferrule, 43 round joint, 31 solder, 21 stopcock, 45

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES

Inconsistencies in hyphenation and spelling have been retained. 

Mid-paragraph illustrations have been moved for easier reading.